We explored the complex relations between climate and streamflow in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. In 124 watersheds across this region, we quantified spatial and temporal variation in air temperature (AT), precipitation (P), and streamflow (Q) from 1981 through 2020. Upward directional trends in monthly values of AT, P, and Q indicated an increase of 0.27–1.9 degrees Celsius, 0.12–1.9 millimeters day ^−1 , and 0.01–7.1 cubic meters s ^−1 day ^−1 , respectively, over the 40-year period. Comparison of the first 20 years to the last 20 years of data indicated an acceleration in the trend slopes in AT, P, and Q. Changes also were observed in temporal trends in the center of volume (CV) of both P and Q, which generally occurred later in the year; the 7-day mean low flow increased, and the annual day of occurrence of the 7-day mean low flow occurred earlier in the year. Principal components analysis revealed differences in P, Q, CVP, and CVQ trends in watersheds with median elevations greater than and less than 400 meters, as well as by latitude. A seasonal analysis revealed that P increased throughout the study area in spring, summer, and fall but decreased in winter. AT, P, and Q have broadly increased across the region over the 40-year period, and the temporal, spatial, and seasonal changes in P have affected Q. Results highlight the strong couplings between climatic variability and watershed responses.

First posted February 21, 2023 For additional information, contact: Director, Virginia and West Virginia Water Science CenterU.S. Geological Survey1730 East Parham RoadRichmond, Virginia 23228Contact Pubs Warehouse “The Bay Connects us, the Bay reflects us” writes Tom Horton in the book “Turning the Tide—Saving the Chesapeake Bay”. The Chesapeake Bay watershed contains the largest estuary in the United States. The watershed stretches north to Cooperstown, New York, south to Lynchburg and Virginia Beach, Virginia, west to Pendleton County, West Virginia, and east to Seaford, Delaware, and Scranton, Pennsylvania. The watershed is more than 64,000 square miles that contain 150 major rivers and streams, hereafter referred to collectively as streams, that total more than 100,000 miles in length. The watershed contains thousands of smaller creeks and tributaries, large numbers of plants and animals, and, in 2020, more than 18.4 million people. As changes occur in population, land use, and climate within the watershed, so too do the diversity and health of the Bays ecosystems.

Near-field remote sensing of surface velocity and river discharge (discharge) were measured using coherent, continuous wave Doppler and pulsed radars. Traditional streamgaging requires sensors be deployed in the water column; however, near-field remote sensing has the potential to transform streamgaging operations through non-contact methods in the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and other agencies around the world. To differentiate from satellite or high-altitude platforms, near-field remote sensing is conducted from fixed platforms such as bridges and cable stays. Radar gages were collocated with 10 USGS streamgages in river reaches of varying hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics, where basin size ranged from 381 to 66,200 square kilometers. Radar-derived mean-channel (mean) velocity and discharge were computed using the probability concept and were compared to conventional instantaneous measurements and time series. To test the efficacy of near-field methods, radars were deployed for extended periods of time to capture a range of hydraulic conditions and environmental factors. During the operational phase, continuous time series of surface velocity, radar-derived discharge, and stage-discharge were recorded, computed, and transmitted contemporaneously and continuously in real time every 5 to 15 min. Minimum and maximum surface velocities ranged from 0.30 to 3.84 m per second (m/s); minimum and maximum radar-derived discharges ranged from 0.17 to 4890 cubic meters per second (m3/s); and minimum and maximum stage-discharge ranged from 0.12 to 4950 m3/s. Comparisons between radar and stage-discharge time series were evaluated using goodness-of-fit statistics, which provided a measure of the utility of the probability concept to compute discharge from a singular surface velocity and cross-sectional area relative to conventional methods. Mean velocity and discharge data indicate that velocity radars are highly correlated with conventional methods and are a viable near-field remote sensing technology that can be operationalized to deliver real-time surface velocity, mean velocity, and discharge.

The US Geological Survey (USGS) is currently (2020) integrating its water science programs to better address the nation's greatest water resource challenges now and into the future. This integration will rely, in part, on data from 10 or more intensively monitored river basins from across the USA. A team of USGS scientists was convened to develop a systematic, quantitative approach to prioritize candidate basins for this monitoring investment to ensure that, as a group, the 10 basins will support the assessment and forecasting objectives of the major USGS water science programs. Candidate basins were the level-4 hydrologic units (HUC04) with some of the smaller HUC04s being combined; median candidate-basin area is 46,600 km2. Candidate basins for the contiguous United States (CONUS) were grouped into 18 hydrologic regions. Ten geospatial variables representing land use, climate change, water use, water-balance components, streamflow alteration, fire risk, and ecosystem sensitivity were selected to rank candidate basins within each of the 18 hydrologic regions. The two highest ranking candidate basins in each of the 18 regions were identified as finalists for selection as "Integrated Water Science Basins"; final selection will consider input from a variety of stakeholders. The regional framework, with only one basin selected per region, ensures that as a group, the basins represent the range in major drivers of the hydrologic cycle. Ranking within each region, primarily based on anthropogenic stressors of water resources, ensures that settings representing important water-resource challenges for the nation will be studied.

Design and presentation matter. We validate this every time we peruse a rack of greeting cards or wrestle with an unnecessarily detailed map. So why has science training, as most of us have experienced it, remained so devoid of basic design principles? With limited time to teach communication skills, most graduate programs focus primarily on technical writing. This is a rational strategy because technical writing ability is so essential to the aspiring scientist; work that is not vetted and published in a technical journal is, after all, of little or no value to the scientific community. But a very different set of design skills is needed to communicate scientific knowledge to broad audiences in an accessible and engaging way (Trumbo 1999). Consider successful media outlets like National Geographic Magazine, Science Times (The New York Times), and NOVA (Public Broadcasting Service). They are effective because of their aesthetic production and meticulously refined storylines. In Fig. 1, we have recreated Raymond Lindeman's iconic “ooze” diagram from Cedar Bog Lake, Minnesota (originally Fig. 1 in Lindeman 1941). All of the structural information from the original diagram is included in our version, as are the annual production estimates from Lindeman's Table 4. We present both versions here as a kind of visual argument: the original has served the scientific community well for more than 70 yr, but we believe the re-envisioned diagram has greater potential to engage and educate general audiences. The colors and shapes are eye-catching and the slightly enigmatic (but not overly complex) design creates a puzzle that is intended to draw the viewer in. The new diagram is also a good example of the kind of visualization that a student with basic training in graphic design and computer illustration can create. A re-envisioned diagram of the food-cycle in Cedar Bog Lake, Minnesota, created by graduate student Christopher Mason (Virginia Commonwealth University). All of the structural components and major pathways from the original graphic (Fig. 1 in Lindeman 1941, shown at upper right) are preserved in the new graphic. Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for aquatic (nannoplankters and phytoplankters) and semiaquatic (pondweeds) primary producers; this one-way subsidy is depicted by the solid “bridge” between the external solar radiation ring and the interior nanno-phytoplankters-pondweeds ring (trophic level 1). Trophic links between producers and their consumers are represented by the four concentric rings, with higher trophic levels at more distal positions. The widths of the four trophic level rings reflect the summed (aquatic + semiaquatic organisms) mean annual production within each trophic level, as reported in Table 4 of Lindeman (1941); the original production data (in cal/cm2/yr) were ln-transformed to prevent the size of the primary production ring from overwhelming the graphic. The benthic ooze at the center of the diagram is depicted as a mix of bacteria, dissolved nutrients, and decaying tissue from each of the four trophic levels; the shaded transition to orange within each trophic level ring represents the decay and settling of plant and animal tissue. The direct connection between the ooze and the boundary of the Cedar Bog Ecosystem represents the availability of the ooze as a general resource within the lake. Finally, dissolved nutrients are an essential, basal resource within Cedar Bog Lake but are also connected to external sources; the direct link between internal nutrients and the external nutrient ring reflects the modern threat that anthropogenic nutrient loading now poses to many aquatic ecosystems. The original Cedar Bog food-cycle diagram is used with permission from The American Midland Naturalist. Recently, the Center for Environmental Studies and the Rice Rivers Center at Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) teamed up with faculty from the VCU School of the Arts (one of the top-ranked arts schools in the country) to begin an interdisciplinary, graduate-level experiment in broad science communication training. Dubbed Ecological and Environmental Science Perception version 2.0 (eESP2.0), this program has three main objectives. First, we want to identify specific technical skills that will be most useful to young scientists as they begin to communicate their own work. Should we focus on digital illustration? Perhaps photography or video would be more useful? We are entering uncharted waters here and will spend the next 2–3 yr formulating a serviceable answer to this question. Second, we seek to empower our students with the knowledge that they possess a novel and valuable skill set. Third, we intend to create and distribute a record of this process, inclusive of course curricula, program logistics, and measures of student success. eESP2.0 currently consists of two new graduate courses: one in digital illustration and design, and a second in documentary storytelling. The first, entitled Infographics—the Visualization of Scientific Data, was launched in August 2014. Course content includes lessons on typography and legibility, complimentary color schemes, effective use of space in poster and infographic layouts, and an introduction to Adobe Creative Suites software (primarily Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop). The second course, Getting the Science Out—Communicating Your Science to the Public, is about to be taught for the first time. It will include an introduction to photography and video, inclusive of the recording and editing stages, as well as storyline development and nontechnical writing for general audiences. Graduate students who wish to develop broad communication pieces from their own research have the option to enroll in either or both courses. The 2014 Infographics course was a combination of informal lectures and computer exercises, working with the students' own research materials in Illustrator and Photoshop. We began with simple typographic assignments in which students experimented with the selection, orientation, and layout of different typefaces, learning first-hand how typography can enhance (or constrain) the impact and clarity of a message. Assignments then became more technical as students learned to use the drawing tools in Illustrator and to import and modify digital images in Photoshop. Two examples of student work are shown in Fig. 2. Throughout the semester, students were offered opportunistic “tricks of the trade” to improve their individual assignments; some examples, including text hierarchy and the use of repeating images, central dominance, and the use of color and bleeds, are shown in Box 1. The class culminated in a final poster or large-format infographic that was designed to be equally accessible to technical and non-technical audiences. A juried critique of the final projects was then used to award travel grants to two of the students, allowing them to showcase their work. Examples of student work prepared during the Fall 2014 Infographics class. Panel A is the logo that a student created to “brand” her research on forest carbon sequestration; it combined basic typography with a tree cross-section photo that was edited in Photoshop then imported to Illustrator (credit: Amy Schmid). Panel B is a food-chain diagram of the potential connection between a toxic cyanobacteria (Microcystis sp.) in the James River, Virginia and the Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea); it demonstrates the level of technical illustration skill that some of our students achieved (credit: Nicholas Moy). This first cohort of Infographics students met or exceeded each of our curricular expectations. Each student left the class with a basic understanding of graphic design principles and the technical skill to create more engaging visualizations of scientific information. But we observed something else in the students that we did not previously anticipate. They relished the opportunity to explore the creative, artistic side of science communication. Every class period was a lively, fun event and the students were clearly proud to share their work in group critiques. In fact, most of the students requested after-hours access to the Adobe computer lab (located in an Arts facility) to continue working on their projects. A critical evaluation of the effectiveness of eESP2.0, relative to the professional development and success of our students, will obviously have to wait until our students have moved on to the next stages of their careers. But we can say with certainty that each member of the first cohort felt the Infographics class was an enriching and worthwhile use of their time. Our students' interest in communicating science, and not just conducting it, mirror a larger trend within the scientific community. The National Science Foundation (NSF) recently solicited new ideas in graduate training through the 2013 Innovation in Graduate Education Challenge (www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/gradchallenge/). Graduate students within any STEM discipline were eligible to propose new curricular opportunities that would best meet their anticipated professional needs. Proposals were then evaluated and scored by a mixed panel of peers (i.e., graduate students) and established experts in graduate education. Eight proposals were selected as winners, three of which sought to enhance public engagement through broad communications training: (i) The Scientists with Stories Project; (ii) Communicating Science to the Public—A New Graduate Course and Practicum; and (iii) RELATE—Researchers Expanding Lay-Audience Teaching and Engagement. Other notable indicators of “supply side” interest in enhanced science communication capacity include the Integration and Application Network (IAN) and Freshwaters Illustrated. IAN is a faculty initiative at the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science that teaches scientists to apply design and digital illustration tools (similar to our goals for the Infographics class) through multiday workshops and online training modules (http://ian.umces.edu/). IAN has also published an excellent text on science communication (Thomas et al. 2006) and created a free, web-based application for building conceptual diagrams of aquatic and terrestrial environments (essentially a lightweight version of Adobe Illustrator), complete with an extensive library of thematic icons (mixed fauna, flora, and physical habitat elements) and photos. Freshwaters Illustrated is a collaboration of scientists and artists that use underwater photography and video to educate general audiences (www.freshwatersillustrated.org). Their strategy is simple: use stunning images to help audiences connect with aquatic organisms and their native environments. The examples of science communication resources and training opportunities provided here are anecdotal. Readers seeking a more thorough treatment of this topic should consult Holliman et al. (2009) and Besley and Tanner (2011). For now, it is enough to emphasize that we are not alone in our intent to overhaul the science communication process. But having the skill and capacity to communicate science effectively is only one side of the coin. To facilitate a complete communication process, there must be demand by an audience. Previously, we stated that we want to empower our students. This was not a platitude. The recent popularity of science outlets like IFLSCIENCE! (www. iflscience.com/) and Information is Beautiful (www.informationisbeautiful.net/) lead us to believe that public demand for the kinds of technical capabilities we are providing is on the rise. And if this intuition proves correct, then our students will be empowered with highly marketable skills. There are also disciplinary incentives for scientists to polish their communication skills. For instance, new research on the “science of science communication” is starting to show that scientists who self-publicize their work through new media/social media channels are more influential and highly cited among their professional peers (Liang et al. 2014). A focused effort to communicate with general audiences is clearly one of the most direct and intuitive options that a scientist has to satisfy the Broader Impacts criterion that is now required for all NSF proposals (Nadkarni and Stasch 2013). (Note to graduate students: think about how good a personal science blog, complete with “professional” graphics, would look in a NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program proposal.) Scientists with design training might even be of special value to regulatory agencies that consistently prepare and circulate documents for public review (Gallagher and Jacobson 1993). Finally, we point to a less utilitarian reason for scientists to polish their broad communication skills. In a democratic society, publicly-funded research is made possible through a social contract: we do work that will, presumably, be of some benefit to the general public, now or in the future (Lubchenco 1998). This contract does not assume we will all cure cancer or invent vulcanized rubber. But it does entail a reasonable expectation that scientists will engage with and educate the populace (Doubleday 2009). And we believe there is much room for improvement here. Think back to the 2008 U.S. Presidential election, when a vice-presidential candidate famously criticized the NSF for funding fruit fly research. (We kid you not!) Scientists were simultaneously amused and annoyed, but the joke was on us. It is bad when a high-ranking politician demonstrates ignorance of basic science. It is much worse when many thousands of voters unknowingly applaud that ignorance. By providing young scientists with modern communication skills, we hope to improve scientific literacy and, in our own way, reaffirm the social contract. We owe a huge debt of gratitude to Robert Meganck (Communication Arts, VCU Arts) and Laura Chessin (Graphic Design, VCU Arts) for stepping forward to teach the initial eESP2.0 classes. Without their skills, energy, and shared vision we would not have an eESP2.0 program to report on. We also thank the students for choosing to be a part of our experiment and taking one of our classes. Financial support is being provided by multiple partners at VCU, including the Rice Rivers Center, the Center for Environmental Studies, the Vice Provost for Life Sciences, and the Quest Innovation Fund. David F. Brakke graciously shared the cover photo of Cedar Bog Lake. Finally, we thank Adrienne Sponberg for reaching out and inviting us to share our work with the ASLO community.