Long-lived species living in forested systems are challenging to manage because anthropogenic activities have shifted disturbance regimes, succession, and subsequently forest structure, which affects habitat across their lifetime. The Wood Turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) historically persisted through landscape processes but there is now uncertainty in how they respond to current disturbance and successional processes; and accordingly face management uncertainty regarding the effect of habitat reconfiguration via forest harvest. To address this uncertainty, we built a habitat model using a step-selection function informed by GPS movements, forest structure using LiDAR, and forest inventory data. We then applied this model to chronosequence clearcut harvest blocks aged 1–35 years and old-forest habitat to predict how probability of use changes with time-since-harvest; we also surveyed microhabitat variables in these plots to assess how thermal and food resources change. We found that Wood Turtles use open canopy with dense shrubs while avoiding closed canopy during the day but discovered a shift to closed canopy at night that we hypothesize is driven by thermoregulation because closed canopy habitats are warmer at night. Our chronosequence design revealed Wood Turtles are unlikely to use old, undisturbed forests because the canopy is homogenously closed, with limited thermal resources. Harvesting closed canopy forest immediately increased probability of use, but this effect was spatially constrained as habitat became unsuitable beyond 96 m from closed canopy. However, habitat was only temporarily unsuitable as forest succession occurred rapidly post-harvest. Stands aged 15–35 years post-harvest generally had a closed, but patchy canopy—resulting in the highest probability of use across all forest types. Our key takeaway is that harvesting closed canopy forests can improve forest-dwelling reptile habitat if the shape and size of blocks are planned to minimize distance to closed canopy.

Environmental impacts of persistent organic pollutants remain poorly constrained at landscape scales due to limited exposure data, despite past widespread use and their recognized persistence. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was once used across North America, including in one of the world’s largest spray programs in New Brunswick (Canada), where ∼6 million kg were applied to ∼50% of forested lands. Digitization of insecticide application records from 1952-1968 provides a rare opportunity to assess the fate and ecological risk from legacy DDTs across ∼36,000 km2 of forested lands. We combine geospatial application data with sedimentary measures from 31 lakes to quantify both historical and contemporary exposure to legacy DDTs. We show that sediments from top and middle core intervals exceeded probable effects levels for the dominant congener ΣDDE by a median of 7.2 and 17.4 times, respectively. A modest significant positive relationship (R2 = 0.17, p = 0.023) was observed between landscape DDT application rates and total ΣDDTs in surface sediments only. Surface sediment remained consistently above ecological risk levels, suggesting continued aquatic exposure to harmful levels. Ecological risks associated with past insecticide use have likely been substantially underestimated in the region. Importantly, we establish the first landscape-scale assessment of legacy DDT exposure, enabling future work on biodiversity response, bioaccumulation, and recovery trajectories. Overall, our approach highlights the relevance of landscape-scale assessments combined with sedimentary archives to evaluate legacy impacts of persistent organic pollutants on freshwater ecosystems.

The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA; Adelges tsugae) is an invasive insect causing widespread mortality of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) across eastern North America, altering forest structure and associated ecosystems. The insecticide imidacloprid is used for HWA control, but its persistence and potential for soil and water contamination raises concern for fossorial species. We used the eastern red-backed salamander (RBS; Plethodon cinereus) as an indicator species to assess how HWA infestation and imidacloprid treatment influence hemlock stands in southwestern Nova Scotia. We conducted line transect surveys across two HWA-infested sites--each containing four treated and four untreated 1 ha stands--and one uninfested control site with four mature hemlock stands. We applied a multi-model Akaike's information criterion corrected for small sample sizes framework to test the effects of treatment, infestation, and environmental covariates on RBS abundance, body condition, and abundance within a zone of potential residue exposure. Treatment and infestation were the only predictors of abundance: treatment increased abundance, whereas infestation reduced it. Canopy openness, soil pH, and soil moisture did not differ significantly among stands, and none were found to be predictors of body condition or abundance within the zone of potential exposure. These results reinforce the value of integrating chemical control with long-term monitoring while biological control strategies develop.

The geospatial dataset describes large-scale applications of insecticides to forests from 1968 to 2017 in the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) and Nova Scotia (NS), Canada. The data was assembled to provide a historical record of forested land management practices to control insect populations (Heartz et al. 2024). These data are useful for research into the efficacy and long-term environmental impacts, which will inform future pest management decision-making. Dataset access is at https://doi.org/10.23687/463c5141-39ad-4734-85a5-755049f93e60 . Associated metadata are available at https://metadata-afs.nancy.inra.fr/geonetwork/srv/fre/catalog.search#/metadata/b8530e3c-e816-4632-a89c-7cc5e88e721f .

To manage defoliation from insect outbreaks, about half of the forested land in New Brunswick, Canada, was treated with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) between 1952 and 1968. Aerial applications of DDT have thus likely increased the risk of chronic effects in aquatic ecosystems from this legacy insecticide given its high persistence in soil and sediments and its bioaccumulation potential within the food web. We investigated DDT and its metabolites (total ΣDDTs = ∑ DDT + ∑ DDD + ∑ DDE) in Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) associated with geospatial data of historical applications to lake watersheds and sedimentary measures of DDT and its metabolites from five "impact" and two "reference" study lakes. Total ΣDDTs in recent lake sediments were significantly correlated with cumulative DDT applied aerially to the lake's watershed. Brook Trout muscle tissue showed total ΣDDTs that were significantly higher from impact lakes than reference lakes. On average, total ΣDDTs in Brook Trout from impact lakes exceeded ecological guidelines for consumers of aquatic biota by about ten times. Most legacy DDT in Brook Trout and lake sediments were the metabolites ΣDDE and ΣDDD, which suggests the importance of environmental conditions and transport of weathered sources of this organochlorine insecticide to biota. Stable isotopes from fish and common invertebrate prey also suggested that Brook Trout were at a similar trophic position among all study lakes and thus storage pools of legacy DDT likely explain contamination levels within biota. Our findings clearly demonstrate that chronic effects of historical DDT applications likely persist throughout aquatic environments in north-central New Brunswick.

Insecticides have known effects on riverine benthic macroinvertebrate (BMI) assemblages. However, there is limited understanding of the legacy effects of insecticides, particularly in watersheds that received decades of historical applications. From 1952 to 1993, over 6.2 million ha in the province of New Brunswick (Canada) was treated with one to twelve different insecticides including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), aminocarb, fenitrothion, and phosphamidon. Using a contemporary BMI dataset that included 274 sites within watersheds that cover 50 % of New Brunswick, we evaluated the relative importance of historical insecticide applications and contemporary environmental variables in explaining variability in BMI assemblages. We found that historical insecticides explained a significant, but small, amount of variation in contemporary assemblages. The number of insecticide applications showed a stronger association with BMI metrics than the total amount of insecticide(s) applied, though contemporary environmental measures such as urban land use, substrate size, geology, and climate all had more explanatory power than insecticide metrics. Our results suggested that while contemporary environmental variables and historical insecticide applications both affect BMI assemblage composition, the former often had a stronger role in structuring assemblages. Recognizing the influence of legacy stressors provides important context for understanding contemporary bioindicator responses to environmental change.

Forestry activities, including harvesting and herbicide application, alter both overstory and understory vegetation communities, reshaping ecosystem structure and condition. These changes likely impact wildlife sensitive to environmental change, such as the Eastern Red-backed Salamander ( Plethodon cinereus). We compared canopy cover, soil temperature, soil moisture, soil pH, and salamander abundance across unharvested reference stands and clear-cut harvest blocks treated and untreated with a glyphosate-based herbicide. Overall, reference stands exhibited the highest canopy cover and soil moisture, and lowest soil temperature. Herbicide-treated blocks showed decreasing soil temperature and increasing moisture with time since harvest, whereas untreated blocks exhibited the opposite trend. Salamander abundance in reference stands was 4 and 18 times higher than in herbicide-treated and untreated blocks, respectively, and 3 times higher in herbicide-treated than untreated blocks. Greater canopy cover and soil moisture in herbicide-treated blocks likely improve habitat suitability, promoting higher salamander abundance compared to untreated blocks during forest regeneration. Our study suggests that herbicide application in clear-cut forests may accelerate the recovery of microhabitat conditions to preharvest levels, partially mitigating the impacts of harvesting on forest specialists like salamanders. We emphasize the need for holistic approaches in forestry management to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem integrity in increasingly changing landscapes.

The hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA Adelges tsugae) is an invasive insect on the east coast of North America where it has resulted in the widespread death and decline of hemlock trees. In Canada the most commonly used control strategy is the application of imidacloprid-based insecticides by basal bark spray, which could pose risk to non-target species. We monitored soil concentrations 50-400 cm away from trees for 24 months post application of Xytect 2f at a rate of 0.278 g imidacloprid/cm DBH and conducted a preliminary risk characterization by calculating Risk Quotients (RQ) for soil invertebrates derived from species sensitivity distributions build from No Observed Effect Concentrations (NOEC) and EC50 values. Imidacloprid was detected in 58.3–96.8% of samples at 50 and 100 cm and 8.3–45.8% at 200 and 400 cm from treated trees. The RQ values exceeded 1 at all times 50 cm from the tree for the median exposure, and at all distances and times for the upper 95% CI exposure. The frequency that RQ’s exceeded 1 declined with distance from tree at all time periods and declined over time at 50 and 100 cm from treated trees, but not at 200 and 400 cm. Overall, the highest risk to non-target soil invertebrates from basal bark application of imidacloprid occurs within 200 cm of treated trees.

Phenotype-environment associations in neonatal animals may arise in wild environments by virtue of ecological dynamics within the nest. Such dynamics may be of special importance to the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), an enigmatic trait that can be adaptive when the incubation temperatures that affect sexual differentiation also have differential effects on the fitness of the sexes. To infer the causal effects of the nest environment on fitness-relevant phenotypes, we apply structural equation modelling (SEM) to a 14-year dataset of 3085 individual embryos whose position in 179 wild snapping turtle nests could be estimated. We find that temperature has a positive effect on hatchling size, and that the same temperatures that predict hatchling size also predict the sex of hatchlings. Further, the probability that embryos develop as males is correlated with hatchling size in the wild, where across all environments, males are slightly and significantly larger than females at hatching. Our SEM reveals that the covariance between size and sex arises because of temperature effects on size, and because of a predictable covariance between egg placement within the nest coupled with maternal effects on egg size. Finally, embryos deep in the nest have a high probability of becoming male even in the hottest years. Our study suggests ecological dynamics occurring within the nest are an interesting and underappreciated source of phenotypic variation. Our study also supports the view that TSD is an adaptive trait, rather than a neutral trait, by showing consistent associations between phenotype and temperature in wild nests of a TSD reptile.

Abstract Our aim was to examine temporal change in alpha and beta diversity of freshwater fish communities in rivers that have urbanized over the same period to understand the influence of changes in land use and river connectivity on community change. We used biological (2001–2018), land use (2000–2015), and connectivity data (1987–2017) from Toronto, Ontario, Canada. We used linear mixed effects models to determine the strength of upstream land use, connectivity, and their changes over time to explain temporal change in alpha and beta diversity indices. We examined beta diversity using the temporal beta diversity index (TBI) to assess site‐specific community change. The TBI was partitioned into gains and losses, and species‐specific changes in abundance were assessed using paired t‐tests. There were more gains than losses across the study sites as measured by TBI. We found little to no significant differences in species‐specific abundances at aggregated spatial scales (study region, watershed, stream order). We found different relationships between landscape and connectivity variables with the biodiversity indices tested; however, almost all estimated confidence intervals overlapped with zero and had low goodness‐of‐fit. More fish biodiversity gains than losses were found across the study region, as measured by TBI. We found TBI to be a useful indicator of change as it identifies key sites to further investigate. We found two high value TBI sites gained non‐native species, and one site shifted from a cool‐water to warm‐water species dominated community, both of which have management implications. Upstream catchment land use and connectivity had poor explanatory power for change in the measured biodiversity indices. Ultimately, such spatial–temporal datasets are invaluable and can reveal trends in biodiversity useful for environmental management when considering competing interests involved with urban sprawl in the ongoing “Decade on Restoration.”

There is increasing concern across Canada regarding the use of chemical herbicides in forestry. In Quebec, the use of herbicides for forest management on public lands has been discontinued since 2001, and there is mounting pressure to eliminate or greatly reduce their use in Ontario. To this end, we present a digital compendium of studies that assess the medium to longer-term effectiveness of a range of vegetation management treatments in boreal and northern temperate forests of Ontario and Quebec, Canada. For inclusion, studies must have: (1) followed responses for five years or longer, or been a component of a larger project that did so; (2) included at least one silvicultural experiment type (i.e., harvest, site preparation, regeneration and/or tending); (3) included tree or other vegetation-related metrics as response variable(s); and (4) been located in or relevant to boreal or northern temperate forests of Ontario and Quebec. We classified study sites using a bioregional ecological framework that reflects site, substrate and overstory and understory vegetation characteristics relevant to vegetation management. The finalized compendium is open-access and can be used to synthesize knowledge on the silvicultural effectiveness of various herbicide alternatives, assess knowledge gaps, and identify candidate sites for re-measurement.

Radio-telemetry has provided valuable information about habitat use, movement, and ecology of reptiles. However, capture and repeated observations can be stressful for animals and may affect behavior, which could influence conclusions drawn from observations. Previous work on handling-induced stress of Glyptemys insculpta (Wood Turtle) showed a physiological response to handling, though there is currently no data on how handling may impact the spatial behavior and movement of this species. We examined the spatial effects of handling 21 adult female Wood Turtles in New Brunswick, Canada, using GPS loggers. We found that turtles moved significantly more after handling events than before, suggesting that turtles may exhibit a flight response to handling. We suggest future studies on turtles limit unnecessary interaction with study individuals and avoid using relocations in habitat-use studies for up to 50 hr after capture when studying fine-scale animal movement and habitat use.

Headstarting involves ex situ rearing of vulnerable life stages, then releasing individuals into the wild once they are larger and less vulnerable to predation. Sometimes, headstarted animals display underdeveloped behaviors that may lead to an acclimation period of reduced survival and growth after release. Using data from a 6-year headstarting program, we tested whether the early release condition affected survival, body condition, and somatic growth rate in 2 groups of headstarted Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii) released into Rouge National Urban Park (RNUP) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The first group included turtles released directly into the wild (i.e., hard release). The second group included turtles released into an in situ enclosure in which individuals remained for a week without food supplementation before being fully released into the wild (i.e., delayed release). Release body condition did not affect survival or growth rate. In the delayed-release group, body condition initially declined rapidly and remained low for up to 1 year after release. Given the lack of wild juveniles in RNUP, we compared body condition of headstarted turtles at various time points since release to similar-sized wild juveniles from 2 other Ontario populations, one from Algonquin Provincial Park (APP) and one near Lake Erie (LE). Body condition of headstarted turtles was similar to those of wild APP turtles regardless of release method, and higher than those of wild LE turtles. Our results indicate that delayed release did not improve post-release outcomes for headstarted turtles in an urban landscape and headstarted turtles sustain similar health metrics as wild turtles.

The Wood Turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) is a semiaquatic turtle species that has been known to exhibit intersexual variation in habitat use during summer. Males often remain near watercourses in riparian areas, whereas females tend to move upland and spend more time in terrestrial environments postnesting. Dietary niche partitioning is one of several hypotheses proposed to explain why females leave aquatic habitats in search of terrestrial food resources. The presence of dietary niche partitioning within a population of Wood Turtles in central New Brunswick, Canada, was assessed using stable isotope analysis. Male and female Wood Turtles were sampled in spring and summer 2021. Potential invertebrate foods were sampled and grouped into pond, stream, and terrestrial food sources. Using stable carbon (delta C-13) and nitrogen (delta N-15) isotopic ratios of extracted red blood corpuscle and blood plasma, the resource use and isotopic niche widths of individuals within the population were compared between seasons and sexes. Results indicated no significant differences in delta C-13 and delta N-15 values, dietary contributions, or isotopic niche widths between spring and summer samples or between males and females. We determined that terrestrial invertebrates were an important food source (>72% mean diet contribution) across the entire sampled population, with invasive Arion slug species constituting a large portion of turtle diets. Our findings indicate that dietary niche partitioning is most likely not the explanation for sexual variation in habitat use by Wood Turtles.

BACKGROUND:Glyphosate is the most commonly used herbicide in the world, and is used in agriculture, forestry, and urban settings. In regions with high glyphosate use, such as agricultural, glyphosate and its' major derivative aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) are frequently detected in surface waters. In Canadian forestry glyphosate-based herbicides are used to control vegetation that competes with conifer trees and are applied one to two times during a rotation, leading to infrequent application to the same area. Forestry occurs over a large spatial extent, and the cumulative application in space can lead to a large percentage of the land base receiving an application through time. To assess the frequency and concentration of glyphosate and AMPA in surface waters of a region where forestry is the dominant use sector, we conducted three monitoring programs targeting: (i) immediately after application, (ii) after rainfall, and (iii) cumulative application over a large spatial extent. RESULTS:Across all monitoring programs we collected 296 water samples between August and October from eight river systems over two years and detected glyphosate in one sample at 17 ppb. CONCLUSION:Glyphosate is not likely present in surface waters during baseflow conditions as a result of applications in forestry. Lack of detection is likely because soil capacity to bind glyphosate remains high due to infrequent applications to the same area, and factors that limit sediment transport to surface waters such as buffers. Additional sampling is needed during other stream conditions, ideally spring freshet, to determine peak concentrations. © 2023 National Research Council Canada. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Innovation, Science, and Economic Development.

Pesticides have been used in Canada since 1945 as part of large-scale aerial spray applications to control insect pests on forested lands. Some of the pesticides used historically were efficacious, nonselective, persistent, and have led to serious impacts on the environment. A well known, and extensively documented example is the large-scale aerial spray programs in New Brunswick, Canada. From 1952 to 1993, 97% of the 6.2 million ha of the forested lands of New Brunswick were treated with at least one application of one insecticide, the majority of which were applied to control outbreaks of eastern spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana). The most well known insecticide was dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), applied from 1952 to 1968, which still persists in treated soils and adjacent water bodies, and caused the individual and cumulative ecosystem effects that can still be measured today. The insecticides that replaced DDT were nonpersistent and unlikely to be found today. However, during the years of application some of the insecticides were likely to have impacted local ecosystems to some degree. To aid future studies on the efficacy and environmental impact of these insecticides we created a digital spatial data set of known pesticide application in New Brunswick forestry from 1952 to 1993. The data set includes active ingredient, formulation, application rate, tank mix, aircraft type, and other ancillary information. The current version of the data is available on the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy Development, GIS Open Data Page and in the supplemental material. Use of the data set for academic and educational purposes is encouraged, provided that both this data paper and the data source are properly cited; the Government of New Brunswick should be acknowledged as the data source (Open Government License http://www.snb.ca/e/2000/data-E.html).

Herbicides are commonly used in forestry to enhance conifer tree growth by reducing the abundance of competitive, undesired, early successional species. Reducing the abundance of understory species could also lead to changes in community composition that need to be documented to aid the understanding of any downstream ecosystem changes. We examined the effects of glyphosate-based herbicides on the abundance, diversity, and community composition of the understory vegetation community of forests located in the temperate-boreal transition zone. We sampled 37 blocks in two ecoregions of the Acadian Forest in eastern Canada that were harvested over the last 15 years. Species richness, Shannon’s diversity, or evenness did not differ among blocks with different herbicide history. However, community composition differed between the non-herbicide and herbicide blocks in both ecoregions. Overall, 26.5% of the plant community variation was explained by the factors herbicide use (10.6%), Biomass Growth Index/site quality (8.6%), time since harvest (3.6%), and ecoregion (1.7%). We found 16 indicator species that differentiated the non-herbicide (9 species) and herbicide blocks (7 species). Indicator species for non-herbicide blocks included two blueberry species, three shrubs (two flowering), and two ferns, whereas indicator species for herbicide blocks were largely perennial forbs. Together, our results indicate that herbicide use does not alter species richness but does reduce shrub abundance, a change that persists throughout the 10 years post-herbicide application captured in our study. The reduced shrub layer likely leads to other changes in the plant community. Herbicide use is associated with subtle changes to the understory plant community, and these changes are missed when only alpha diversity is used to examine the effects of herbicides use on community composition.

The use of insecticides to control undesirable pest species in forestry has undergone a shift from broad spectrum to narrow spectrum insecticides to reduce the risk of effects on non-target species. However, there is still risk of direct effects on non-target species as some insecticides function as hormone mimics, or through indirect pathways as the insecticide is broken down in the environment. Tebufenozide, an ecdysone hormone mimic, is the active ingredient in insecticides used in a variety of large scale pest control programs. An oft cited reason for the safety of Tebufenozide is that it is rapidly broken down in the environment by microbes. We investigated the potential non-target effects of two Tebufenozide formulations used in Canada, Mimic 240LV and Limit 240, on aquatic communities using an outdoor mesocosm experiment. We focus on direct effects on amphibian larvae (wood frog, Rana sylvaticus ), zooplankton communities, and effects on biofilm and phytoplanktonic microbial communities that could arise from either direct toxicity, or from breaking down the insecticide as a nutrient and/or carbon source. There was limited evidence for direct effects on amphibian larvae or zooplankton communities. There were small but non-significant shifts in biofilm microbial communities responsible for nutrient cycling. Beta diversity in the plankton community was slightly higher among tanks treated with insecticide indicating a community dispersion/disbiosis effect. Overall, we found limited evidence of negative effects, however, subtle changes to microbial communities did occur and could indicate changes to ecosystem function.

Glyphosate-based herbicides are the most widely used herbicides in the world, including in Canadian forestry. In general, glyphosate-based herbicides are considered relatively non-toxic to wildlife species due, in part, to rapid breakdown of the chemical in the environment. However, recent work has shown that glyphosate can persist for at least one year after application at low concentrations leading to concern over the persistence of trace levels in the environment. Using two independent studies we characterize the short- (18 days) and long-term (1 year) persistence of glyphosate in vegetation which are commonly, but differentially, browsed by WhiteiTailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Moose (Alces alces), and Black Bear (Ursus americanus), or used as traditional medicines by Indigenous people and compare the residues to exposure thresholds. In the short-term study, glyphosate concentrations within the application block exceeded the general and maximum residue level (MRL) for fresh fruit set by Health Canada (0.1 ppm) for up to 18 days after application. In the long-term study, glyphosate concentrations were above the MRL one week after application and below the MRL one month and one year after application. Under the assumptions that all vegetation contained glyphosate at the highest observed concentration, animals only consume vegetation from herbicide treated areas, and animals consume the physiological maximum level of vegetation daily, Moose, White-Tailed Deer, and Black Bears could exceed the Acceptable Daily Intake for glyphosate (0.3 mg/kg/day) for up to 18 days after application. Subsequently, given dissipation of residues in vegetative matrices as observed in this study, we consider it highly unlikely that the species considered herein could consume enough vegetation throughout their lives to pose a risk to their health. Overall, our two independent studies demonstrate that trace levels of glyphosate persist in vegetation for up to one year after application, however, observed concentrations are unlikely to pose risk to wildlife. We caution that operational practices as typically imposed in Canadian forestry are very important and effective in minimizing risk.

Abstract The need to manage threats to biodiversity, and to do so cost‐effectively, is urgent. Cross‐realm conservation management is recognized as a cost‐effective approach, but it requires collaboration between agencies and jurisdictions, and local knowledge of anthropogenic threats to biodiversity. With its emphasis on stakeholder engagement and use of structured expert elicitation, Priority Threat Management (PTM) facilitates rapid, cross‐realm planning at the regional scale. We used PTM to identify cost‐effective management strategies with the aim of securing nine ecological groups, comprised of 45 species and one ecological community of conservation concern, across terrestrial and freshwater realms within the Wolastoq|Saint John River watershed in Canada. Under business‐as‐usual, four of nine groups are expected to have >50% probability of persistence over the next 25 years. Investment of $141 million over 25 years in three management strategies could secure seven groups across both realms with >50% probability of persistence. Achieving higher levels of persistence comes at a cost—securing six groups with >60% probability of persistence requires investing $218 million over 25 years in seven strategies. Through a structured, iterative process, whereby stakeholders cooperate to clarify objectives, devise management strategies, and collate data, PTM can support timely and cost‐effective management across multiple realms.