Exercise is a cornerstone adjunct therapy for people with Parkinson's Disease (PwP) but tolerance is often impaired by non-motor processes including decreased motivation, psychological arousal, and physical effort allocation. Self-selected music (SSM) improves motivation and arousal state thereby enhancing physical effort and capacity during goal-directed exercise in healthy adults. Whether these effects translate to PwP is unclear. The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of SSM on psychophysiological responses and goal-directed exercise performance during a 6-minute walk test (6MWT) in PwP. In a counterbalanced crossover manner, PwP (n = 12) completed two 6MWT under different listening conditions: 1) White noise (WN) and 2) SSM. Participants walked as far as possible in six minutes while listening to the corresponding condition while heart rate, metabolic equivalents (METs), steps, and distance were monitored. After the completion of each 6MWT, motivation, psychological arousal, enjoyment, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed. Findings show SSM music resulted in significantly higher heart rate (p = 0.004; d = 1.1), METs (p = 0.013; d = 0.9), total steps (p = 0.029; d = 0.8), and distance (p = 0.044; d = 0.6) compared to WN. Levels of psychological arousal (+62.6%; p = 0.001; d = 1.6), motivation (+94.1%; p < 0.001; d = 1.4), and enjoyment (p < 0.001; d = 2.0) were higher with SSM compared to WN. No differences in RPE were seen with SSM vs. WN (p = 0.309; d = 0.3). These preliminary data suggest SSM may aid in improving goal-based exercise performance and psychophysiological determinants of exercise capacity in PwP. Although larger sample sizes and more robust testing are warranted, SSM may be an effective ergogenic tool for PwP.

Non-motor symptoms (NMSs) are highly prevalent in Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and contribute significantly to disease severity, progression, and diminished quality of life. NMSs are rooted in both physiological and psychological domains and include emotional dysfunction, autonomic dysregulation, cognitive impairment, pain exacerbation, and neural deficits. While pharmacological approaches are often employed for the alleviation of non-motor symptomology, modest efficacy and adverse side effects may limit their practical utility for individuals with PD, leaving the need for the identification of complementary approaches. Music interventions have emerged as potential adjunctive therapeutic approaches that may positively modulate NMSs in both physiological and psychological domains. Physiologically, music interventions have been shown to alter autonomic activity and pain/sensory perceptions and mediate neurotransmitter release related to arousal, physical effort, and stress. Psychologically, music interventions, both passive and active, have been shown to modulate emotional regulation, motivation, attention, and cognitive performance. Emerging evidence utilizing neuroimaging and behavioral techniques further supports this and suggests music-induced benefits even in the presence of advancing neurodegeneration. Overall, findings from this narrative review suggest music may serve as a potential non-invasive adjunctive therapeutic tool to counteract PD-induced NMSs by adaptively modulating physiological and psychological processes. This narrative review aims to gather current evidence on the physiological and psychological mechanisms underlying the benefits of music and proposes potential therapeutic translation for NMSs in PD. Furthermore, current difficulties, gaps in knowledge, and needs for future research are discussed with the goal of informing directions for clinical translation.

Listening to music is a well-established strategy to enhance exercise capacity, yet the specific mechanisms linking music choice to performance enhancement remain fragmented. This scoping review systematically summarizes the existing literature on the effects of music choice (i.e., self-selected, preferred music) on performance and psychophysiological determinants of exercise capacity to establish an updated rationale for the use of personalized music interventions in training. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a systematic search of five databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Scopus, CINAHL) was performed for studies published between January 2000 and April 2025. Peer-reviewed articles investigating the ergogenic effects of self-selected or preferred music with psychophysiological outcomes were included. Thirty-two studies met inclusion criteria. Overall, evidence supports consistent performance enhancement from choice music (CM) across modes of exercise including aerobic endurance, anaerobic power, and muscular endurance activities while maximal strength was largely unaffected. The most robust and consistent mechanisms underpinning the benefits of CM during exercise were psychological in nature, including improvements in affect, arousal, motivation, and perception of exertion. Notable physiologic benefits were also identified, including altered cortical excitability, autonomic modulation, and improvements in neuromuscular efficiency. Herein, this review provides a psychophysiological framework whereby CM acts as a primary mediator to induce psychological and physiological cascades which synergistically contribute to ergogenic benefits. Evidence heavily supports the superiority of CM to improve exercise performance across various modalities.

Background: Listening to music has been widely reported to improve resistance exercise performance. However, few studies have considered lyrical content. The act of using explicit language has been shown to alter performance and psychophysiological responses to exercise. Although explicit language is widely used in mainstream music, it is unknown if altering explicit lyric content in music influences performance and psychophysiological responses to resistance exercise. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of censoring explicit lyrical music on bench press performance and psychophysiological responses to exercise. Methods: In a counterbalanced crossover manner, resistance-trained males (n = 11) were subjected to two conditions, namely (1) explicit music (EM) or (2) censored music (CM). Following a warm-up, music played continuously as participants completed 2 sets × 2 repetitions as explosively as possible, while a linear position transducer monitored the mean velocity of the barbell. Participants then completed 3 sets × repetitions to failure (RTFs) at 60% of a 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) separated by 2 min of rest. Motivation to exercise, psychological arousal, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured post-exercise. Total RTFs, mean velocity, motivation, psychological arousal, and RPE were compared between music conditions. Results: Findings show that total RTFs (p = 0.012) was significantly lower with CM versus EM, while mean velocity (p = 0.844) was not different between conditions. Psychological arousal (p = 0.005) and motivation (p = 0.002) were lower with CM versus EM. CM also resulted in a higher RPE (p = 0.011) compared to EM. Conclusions: Findings suggest that CM results in worse repetition volume compared to EM during resistance exercise but does not influence explosive ability. Changes in performance may be due to underlying decreases in motivation and psychological arousal. CM may also cause less dissociation, as evidenced by a higher RPE. Future research investigating the effects of lyrical content on exercise performance is warranted to further support current findings.

Introduction: Red spinach powder (RSP) contains high amounts of inorganic nitrate/nitrite (NO3/NO2), which has been suggested to alter vascular activity, cognitive processing, and sprint exercise performance. There have been few investigations as to whether RSP serves as an ergogenic aid to improve resistance exercise performance, particularly muscular endurance. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate acute RSP (VitaSpinach®) supplementation on muscular endurance and velocity during bench press exercise. Methods: In a double-blind, counterbalanced crossover manner, resistance-trained males (n = 14) were subjected to two supplement conditions as follows: (1) placebo (PL; purple sweet potato) or (2) red spinach powder (RSP; 400 mg NO3). Supplements were consumed 2 h prior to exercise and blood was collected immediately pre-exercise to determine NO3/NO2 levels. To determine barbell velocity, participants completed two sets × two repetitions with maximal effort, while a rotary encoder measured mean barbell velocity. Following this, participants performed three sets × repetitions to exhaustion (RTE) at 60% of 1-Repetition Maximum (1-RM), separated by 2 min of rest, to determine muscular endurance. Local (lRPE) and global (gRPE) ratings of perceived exertion were measured after exercise. Blood NO3/NO2, RTE, mean velocity, lRPE, and gRPE were compared between supplement conditions. Results: RSP resulted in significantly higher blood levels of total NO3/NO2 (p < 0.001) compared to PL. RSP did not result in superior total RTE (p = 0.935) but increased mean velocity (p = 0.035) compared to PL. Both lRPE (p = 0.027) and gRPE (p = 0.028) were significantly reduced with RSP supplementation. Conclusions: Findings suggest acute RSP ingestion increased NO3/NO2 and bench press velocity. While muscular endurance remained unchanged, RSP resulted in lower perceptions of exertion.

The ergogenic effects of music have been well described across various modes of exercise with widespread use across competitive athletes and recreational exercisers alike. Underlying the acute beneficial effects of music during exercise are profound physiological and psychological changes which involve an array of different organ systems, including but not limited to cardiovascular, endocrine, skeletal muscle, and nervous systems. While the use of music to enhance physical performance and improve associated mechanisms has been largely optimized in healthy individuals, the investigations of the translation to individuals with neurological conditions are still ongoing. Recently, it has been established that the personalization of music interventions greatly influences performance-enhancing benefits and aids in physical performance optimization in healthy individuals. Self-selected music (SSM) has been documented to impart ergogenic advantages over pre-determined or non-preferred music, including improved cardiorespiratory endurance, power development, and velocity of movement which are characterized by adaptative physiological and psychological changes. Evidence of the benefits of SSM has progressed to the degree to which the overlap of possible benefits between healthy and clinical populations is becoming more apparent. This aim of this theoretical review is to discuss how personalized music influences psychophysiological determinants of exercise ability in healthy individuals and consider how these findings may be applicable to neurological conditions to enhance exercise capacity. The current knowledge on the role of SSM in augmenting physiological and psychological responses to exercise in healthy individuals is presented along with how these mechanisms might be leveraged to overcome exercise limitations in neurological conditions. Overall, SSM appears to have theoretical support to be a promising therapeutic approach to improving exercise ability in neurological conditions through similar ergogenic mechanisms documented in healthy individuals, but further investigation is warranted.

Exercise performance tends to suffer during the morning compared to the evening, which may decrease potential training adaptations. Currently, it is unclear how nutritional interventions may affect this phenomenon and whether supplementation may allow for the attainment of optimal performance regardless of the time of day. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of acute yohimbine ingestion on morning-associated decrements in performance and psychophysiological responses to exercise. Physically active females (n = 16) were recruited to participate in three total visits, each with a different treatment: (1) placebo-morning (PL-AM), (2) yohimbine-morning (YHM-AM; oral 2.5 mg), and (3) placebo-afternoon (PM). The morning and afternoon visits occurred between 7:00–8:00 h and 16:00–17:00 h, respectively. The experimental treatments in the morning were ingested 20 min prior to capillary blood collection, which was completed pre- and post-exercise. Following a warm-up, participants completed a 2000 m time trial on a rowing ergometer. Power output, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded every minute. Time to competition (TTC) and subjective energy, focus, and alertness were documented post-exercise. Pre- and post-exercise blood lactate (La) and plasma hypoxanthine (HX) levels were also assessed. The trials were separated by a 48 h washout period. The results showed that power output (p = 0.010) was lower and TTC (p = 0.003) was significantly slower with PL-AM compared to PM. Furthermore, YHM-AM resulted in higher power output (p = 0.035) and faster TTC (p = 0.007) compared to PL-AM, with no differences compared to PM (p > 0.05). Post-exercise La was significantly lower with YHM-AM compared to PL-AM (p = 0.046) and PM (p = 0.001). Pre-exercise plasma HX, as measured via conversion to xanthine, was significantly higher with PM (p = 0.039), while the levels trended higher with YHM-AM (p = 0.060) compared to PL-AM. Subjective energy was higher with YHM-AM (p = 0.045) and PM (p = 0.009) compared to PL-AM, while alertness was only higher for YHM-AM compared to PL-AM (p = 0.045). No statistical differences between the treatments were found for RPE or HR (p > 0.05). These findings indicate that YHM ingestion attenuates performance decrements in the morning. Improvements in performance may be underpinned by improved feelings of energy and alterations in metabolism. Practically, YHM may represent an effective ergogenic aid to combat a lack of energy and low performance during the morning.

Swearing, or using taboo language with the potential to offend, has been shown to improve physical performance during short and intense tasks requiring strength and power development. While consistent ergogenic effects of swearing have been observed across studies, the mechanisms by which swearing impacts physical performance are not fully clear. Swearing has been shown to modulate physiological (i.e., heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance), psychological (i.e., state disinhibition), and nociceptive (i.e., pain threshold, pain tolerance, pain perception) responses, thus making it plausible that these mechanisms allow swearing to positively impact physical performance. A variety of dosages of swearing (i.e., word used, intensity, frequency, quantity) have been reported to improve physical performance. Although habituation to the positive physical performance effects of swearing has not been explored formally through empirical research, habituation to swearing has been observed in other contexts. From a practical application standpoint, swearing represents a low-risk, effective, and inexpensive intervention that has the potential to acutely improve physical performance although the taboo nature of swearing may limit its utility in real-world situations. The purpose of the following review is to provide an overview of available evidence on swearing and physical performance and discuss likely underlying mechanisms. Exploration of different swearing approaches and habituation will also be highlighted and suggestions for future research will be discussed, to more comprehensively understand if swearing can be strategically used for performance enhancement.

Background/Objectives: Previous evidence has shown that American football headgear (e.g., facemasks, visors/eye shields) differentially impairs reaction time (RT) to visual stimuli, most notably in peripheral fields of view. However, this has only been established with stationary RT testing, which may not translate to gameplay situations that require gross motor skills. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to build upon previous findings to elucidate the effects of various American football headgear on gross motor visuomotor drill performance. Methods: Division 1 NCAA football players (n = 16) with normal/corrected-to-normal vision participated and completed two experiments (EXP), each with differing conditions: EXP1- Varying facemask reinforcement and EXP2- Varying visor/eye shield light transmittance. In EXP1, participants completed an agility test for the following conditions: baseline/no helmet (BL), helmet + light (HL), helmet + medium (HM), and helmet + heavy (HH) face mask reinforcement. In EXP2, participants completed an agility test for the following conditions: baseline/no helmet (BL), helmet + clear visor (HCV), helmet + smoke-tinted visor (HSV), and helmet + mirrored visor (HMV). For each condition in EXP1 and EXP2, participants completed a reactive agility task using a FITLIGHT trainer system where five poles were equipped with a total of ten LED sensors and were placed in a semi-circle 1 m around a center point. Participants were asked to step and reach with their hands to hit each ten lights individually as fast as possible upon illumination. Each reactive agility test was repeated for a total of three attempts. Results: Average reaction time was analyzed and compared between conditions and according to visual fields of interest (e.g., central vs. peripheral). Results from EXP1 showed that compared to BL, reactive agility was worsened by HL (p = 0.030), HM (p = 0.034), and HH (p = 0.003) conditions. No differences between facemask conditions existed for overall performance (p > 0.05). For EXP2, HCV (p < 0.001), HSV (p < 0.001), and HMV (p < 0.001) conditions resulted in worsened reactive agility performance compared to BL. No differences between visor conditions existed for overall performance (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Overall, these findings suggest that American football headgear impairs reactive agility, which could result in worsened game performance and safety. Future studies investigating training strategies to overcome impairments are warranted.

IntroductionThis study assesses the acute effects of combining a plyometric-based conditioning activity (CA) with different musical stimuli during warm-up on taekwondo (TKD) performance and related psychological aspects.MethodsIn a randomized cross-over study design, 16 male TKD athletes (age: 19.94 ± 1.12 years) performed the TKD-specific agility test (TSAT), frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10s) and its multiple version (FSKT-mult) under 7 experimental and one control condition. For the experimental conditions, participants experienced varying combinations of music selection process [self-selected (SSM) vs. pre-selected (PSM)], and music tempo [fast (F) vs. slow (S)], within preferred (PG) and non-preferred (NPG) music genre; all in the presence of a plyometric based-CA. Athletes were instructed to rate their perceived exertion (RPE) after each test and their felt arousal (FAS), feeling scale (FS), and motivation after testing completion.ResultsFindings showed that combining a plyometric-based CA with SSMPG at both fast and slow tempo improved TSAT, FSK-10s, FSKT-mult, FAS, motivation, and RPE post-TSAT greater than the other conditions (all p < 0.05). Additionally, FSSMPG combined with CA improved FS, and RPE after both FSKT-10s and FSKT-mult better than the other conditions (all p < 0.05).ConclusionIn conclusion, listening to fast self-selected music from a preferred genre in combination with a plyometric-based CA during warm-up setups an individualized warm-up strategy and serves to improve the subsequent specific performances and the related psychological aspects in TKD athletes.

The purpose of this review is to compile and discuss available evidence in humans on the efficacy of YHM supplementation on performance in different exercise modalities. Yohimbine (YHM) is a naturally occurring alkaloid that induces increases in sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation effectively initiating “fight or flight” responses. In supplement form, YHM is commonly sold as an isolated product or combined into multi-ingredient exercise supplements and is widely consumed in fitness settings despite the lack of empirical support until recently. YHM primarily acts as an α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist effectively increasing norepinephrine release from sympathetic neurons. YHM has been implicated in improving or altering cardiovascular function, blood flow, lactate metabolism, and muscle function. Emerging evidence has suggested that YHM may have the potential to improve performance in a wide range of exercise modes including endurance, sprint, and resistance exercise. Performance enhancement with YHM is mediated by mechanistic underpinnings of physiological and psychological alterations to exercise responses including increased sympathetic activation, adaptive hemodynamic changes, increased alertness, and decreased fatigue. However, YHM use is not without risk as it has high interindividual variability in bioavailability, can be deceptively potent, lacks widely accepted dosing recommendations, and, when taken in large doses, has been empirically documented to result in serious side effects. Despite this, the evidence presented in this review suggests low doses of YHM are tolerable and may serve as an ideal exercise training aid due to acute enhancement of physical performance. However, safety concerns remain outstanding and temperance should be used when using YHM and similar sympathomimetics.

Swearing, or the use of taboo language, has been repeatedly shown to induce hypoalgesia. While reliable hypoalgesic effects have been observed across studies, the mechanisms by which swearing influences pain and the optimal dosage of swearing remain poorly understood. Plausible mechanistic rationale for swearing’s impact on pain include sympathetic response, emotion, humor, distraction, aggression, state disinhibition, psychological flow, risky behavior, and self-confidence. It remains unknown how the intensity of the swear word, speech volume, frequency, or timing influences pain modulation. While the majority of evidence demonstrates the efficacy of swearing at attenuating acute pain responses, these studies have utilized healthy populations with controlled experiments in laboratory settings. Comparatively, less is known about how laboratory findings translate practically/clinically to diverse populations, various dosages, and different pain chronicities. A greater understanding of mechanistic underpinnings and practical implications are necessary to feasibly implement swearing as a therapeutic modality to combat pain. The purpose of the following mini-review is to provide an overview of the current evidence on swearing for the reduction of pain, speculate on plausible underlying mechanisms, and discuss the potential for optimization of swearing for real-world translation. Lastly, identifying knowledge gaps to aid in directing future research will be discussed.

Various tastes including sweet, bitter, and sour have been shown to differentially influence physiological and psychological processes. Furthermore, ingestion of bitter and sweet solutions has been shown to acutely enhance exercise performance. However, the taste is highly individualized, and it is unclear if preference influences the ergogenic potential of taste. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of preferred and non-preferred drink tastes on anaerobic performance and psychological responses thereof. Physically active females participated in two counterbalanced sprint trials each with a different condition: (1) non-preferred taste (NPT), (2) Preferred taste (PT). Participants self-reported taste preferences (sweet, sour, bitter) with the highest-ranked taste being used for the PT condition and the lowest-ranked for NPT. For each visit, participants completed a 15 s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) prior to (PRE) ingestion of ~20 mL of their NP or PREF taste. Following ingestion, participants completed 2 min of active recovery, rated their taste preference of the solution, and completed another 15 s WAnT. The rate of perceived exertion (RPE), motivation, and enjoyment were measured through a visual analog scale following each WAnT. Anaerobic performance measures and heart rate (HR) were also obtained at the succession of each WAnT. Findings revealed no differences between taste conditions for mean power (p = 0.455), peak power (p = 0.824), or HR (p = 0.847). RPE was significantly lower with PT versus NPT (p = 0.006). Exercise enjoyment (p = 0.022) was higher with PT compared to NPT. NPT resulted in worse motivation compared to PRE (p = 0.001) while no changes were observed between PT and PRE (p = 0.197). These findings suggest that preferred drink taste may not enhance acute performance but improves psychological responses to maximal anaerobic exercise which may have implications for improving exercise training and adherence.

This systematic review summarized the studies that examined the pre-task music effects on performance aspects and quantitatively analyzed their outcomes. A systematic search for controlled studies investigating the acute effects of pre-task music on physical performance, cognitive aspects and associated psycho-physiological responses was performed through Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases up to 17 May 2023, with thirty studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Data was analyzed using the robust multilevel meta-analysis model of standardized mean difference "SMD" with 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and prediction intervals (PI) were reported. Pre-task music induced improvements of completion time (SMD = -0.24; 95% CI = -0.46 to -0.01; PI = -0.82 to 0.35; p = 0.04), relative mean power (RMP) (SMD = 0.38; 95% CI = 0.16 to 0.60; PI = -0.36 to 1.12; p = 0.003) and fatigue (SMD = -0.20; 95% CI = -0.32 to -0.09; PI = -0.36 to -0.05; p = 0.01), moderate effects on relative peak power (RPP) (SMD = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.21 to 0.85; PI = -0.42 to 1.48; p = 0.005), and high effect on feeling scale (FS) (SMD = 2.42; 95% CI = 0.52 to 4.31; PI = -11.43 to 16.26; p = 0.03). Greater benefits were recorded in jumping performance in males than females (p = 0.01), and for active than trained subjects for completion time (p = 0.02), RPP (p = 0.02) and RMP (p = 0.03). Larger benefits were obtained for FS post-warming up than after testing (p = 0.04). Self-selected music induced greater effects than pseudo- and pre-selected for performance decrement index (p = 0.05) and FS (p = 0.02). It could be concluded that pre-task music improved psychological responses and fatigue-related symptoms associated with exercise performance enhancement.

The effects of caffeine (CAF) and music have been well documented when used separately, but their combined effects are not yet studied. Thus, the present study assessed the acute effects of combining a low dose of CAF with listening to music during warm-up on taekwondo physical performance, perceived exertion (RPE), and psychological responses during taekwondo-specific tasks in male elite athletes. In a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study design, male taekwondo athletes (n = 16; age: 18.25 ± 0.75 years) performed the taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT), 10 s frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10s) and the multiple version of FSKT (FSKT-mult) under the following conditions: 1) CAF without music (CAF+NoM), 2) placebo (PL) without music (PL+NoM), 3) CAF with music (CAF+M), 4) PL with music (PL+M), 5) no supplement with music (NoS+M) and no supplement without music (control). RPE, feeling scale (FS), felt arousal scale (FAS) and physical enjoyment (PACES) were determined after each test. Findings showed the CAF+M condition induced better performances than other conditions for TSAT, FSKT-10s, FSKT-mult, RPE, FAS and FS and PACES post FSKT-10s (all p<0.05). Moreover, CAF+M resulted in better responses than other conditions for PACES post TSAT (p<0.05) with the exception of CAF+NoM. Likewise, CAF+M condition induced better physical enjoyment than PL+NoM, NoS+M and PL+M conditions post FSKT-mult (p<0.05). Combining low dose of CAF with music during warm-up was an effective strategy that induced greater effects than their isolated use during taekwondo specific tasks.