The secretive behavior and life history of snakes makes studying their biology, distribution, and the epidemiology of venomous snakebite challenging. One of the most useful, most versatile, and easiest to collect types of biological data are photographs, particularly those that are connected with geographic location and date-time metadata. Photos verify occurrence records, provide data on phenotypes and ecology, and are often used to illustrate new species descriptions, field guides and identification keys, as well as in training humans and computer vision algorithms to identify snakes. We scoured eleven online and two offline sources of snake photos in an attempt to collect as many photos of as many snake species as possible, and attempt to explain some of the inter-species variation in photograph quantity among global regions and taxonomic groups, and with regard to medical importance, human population density, and range size. We collected a total of 725,565 photos—between 1 and 48,696 photos of 3098 of the world's 3879 snake species (79.9%), leaving 781 “most wanted” species with no photos (20.1% of all currently-described species as of the December 2020 release of The Reptile Database). We provide a list of most wanted species sortable by family, continent, authority, and medical importance, and encourage snake photographers worldwide to submit photos and associated metadata, particularly of “missing” species, to the most permanent and useful online archives: The Reptile Database, iNaturalist, and HerpMapper.

Species identification can be challenging for biologists, healthcare practitioners and members of the general public. Snakes are no exception, and the potential medical consequences of venomous snake misidentification can be significant. Here, we collected data on identification of 100 snake species by building a week-long online citizen science challenge which attracted more than 1000 participants from around the world. We show that a large community including both professional herpetologists and skilled avocational snake enthusiasts with the potential to quickly (less than 2 min) and accurately (69–90%; see text) identify snakes is active online around the clock, but that only a small fraction of community members are proficient at identifying snakes to the species level, even when provided with the snake's geographical origin. Nevertheless, participants showed great enthusiasm and engagement, and our study provides evidence that innovative citizen science/crowdsourcing approaches can play significant roles in training and building capacity. Although identification by an expert familiar with the local snake fauna will always be the gold standard, we suggest that healthcare workers, clinicians, epidemiologists and other parties interested in snakebite could become more connected to these communities, and that professional herpetologists and skilled avocational snake enthusiasts could organize ways to help connect medical professionals to crowdsourcing platforms. Involving skilled avocational snake enthusiasts in decision making could build the capacity of healthcare workers to identify snakes more quickly, specifically and accurately, and ultimately improve snakebite treatment data and outcomes.

Abstract: Livers of 25 common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) from Minnesota (2015–16) were analyzed for heavy metals by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. Dry weight mean concentrations (ranges µg/g) were arsenic, 118.94 (0.26–1245.56); cadmium, 1.44 (0.15–7.59); lead, 0.21 (<0.10–0.78); and mercury, 0.30 (<0.5–2.25).

Additional samples analyzed by fungal culture to assess the known host range and geographic distribution of Ophidiomyces. Location data is displayed only to the county level due to concerns with disclosing specific locations of rare or sensitive snake populations. The type of growth medium upon which the fungus culture was performed is listed in the last column (DTM = dermatophyte test medium; IMA = inhibitory mold agar; PFA = potato flake agar; SD = Sabouraud's dextrose agar)

Fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) recovered from the skin of snakes. Each unique internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region DNA sequence variant (i.e., 100% identity) was assigned a numerical code and a presumptive taxon identification. The NWHC case number (see table S1) of the host(s) from which each variant was recovered is specified. A representative DNA sequence for each variant has been deposited in GenBank; bolded case numbers depict the snakes from which these deposited fungal DNA sequences originated. The assignment of each ITS variant to an OTU based on cut-offs of 99.5%, 99%, 98%, and 97% sequence identities is shown, with each OTU given an alpha-numeric code

Prevalence of dermatitis in snakes post-emergence from hibernation. Each site surveyed was given a unique code; location data is displayed only to the county level due to concerns with disclosing specific locations of rare or sensitive snake populations. The US Geological Survey - National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) case numbers for some snakes are cross-listed in Tables S1. Presence of clinical signs of dermatitis was noted, and biopsies were collected from a subset of snakes with lesions. Results of Ophidiomyces culture and histopathology analyses are listed. An asterisk (*) indicates samples that were culture-negative for Ophidiomyces but that tested positive for the fungus by PCR. Snakes that had microscopic lesions consistent with snake fungal disease were considered positive by histopathology; samples that were not of sufficient size or quality for histopatholoic interpretation are listed as "unsuitable". NA = not applicable

Samples used to determine the types of fungi associated with dermatitis in wild snakes. Location data are displayed only to the county (or sometimes state) level due to concerns with disclosing specific locations of rare or sensitive snake populations. Fungal infection was assessed by examining histologic sections of skin lesions. The number of gross lesions consistent with dermatitis were categorized as "none" (no gross skin lesions observed), "single" (one lesion), "multiple" (more than one discrete lesion), or "not assessed" (no information was available on the number of skin lesions present). The type of fungal growth medium upon which samples were cultured is listed as "DTM" (dermatophyte test medium) or "SD" (Sabouraud dextrose medium containing chloramphenicol and gentamycin). The number of unique internal transcribed spacer region DNA sequences identified per snake (or operational taxonomic units [OTUs] at 100% sequence identity) is listed. Samples originating from snakes cited in previous literature are specified

Since 2006, there has been a marked increase in the number of reports of severe and often fatal fungal skin infections in wild snakes in the eastern USA. The emerging condition, referred to as snake fungal disease (SFD), was initially documented in rattlesnakes, where the infections were believed to pose a risk to the viability of affected populations. The disease is caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, a fungus recently split from a complex of fungi long referred to as the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV). Here we review the current state of knowledge about O. ophiodiicola and SFD. In addition, we provide original findings which demonstrate that O. ophiodiicola is widely distributed in eastern North America, has a broad host range, is the predominant cause of fungal skin infections in wild snakes and often causes mild infections in snakes emerging from hibernation. This new information, together with what is already available in the scientific literature, advances our knowledge of the cause, pathogenesis and ecology of SFD. However, additional research is necessary to elucidate the factors driving the emergence of this disease and develop strategies to mitigate its impacts.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.

Following the publication of the revised edition of “Amphibians and Reptiles in Minnesota” by Moriarty and Hall (2014), we accessioned several new or updated records at the Bell Museum of Natural History (JFBM). Records include digital photographs (accession number preceded by “P”) and audio recordings (accession number preceded by “AUD”). In addition, a subset of these observations were accessioned in www.HerpMapper.org. HerpMapper accession numbers are preceded by “HM” and can be viewed online. Benjamin Lowe verified species determinations. Latitude and longitude coordinates are based on datum WGS 84.

To better understand the potential long-term effects of biomass harvesting on biodiversity, the polyporoid fungi community was characterized from 120 plots at four aspen-dominated forests in Minnesota. Four deadwood variables (substrate species, substrate type, decay class, and diameter class) were recorded for each polyporoid species occurrence. A total of 2358 polyporoid occurrences, representing 86 species, were recorded on 16 tree species. Eight species (Trichaptum biforme, Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes hirsuta, Phellinus tremulae, Fomes fomentarius, Irpex lacteus, Fomitopsis ochracea and Antrodia serialis) made up 67% of occurrences. Four polyporoid species (Funalia trogii, Pycnoporellus fulgens, Rigidoporus crocatus and Skeletocutis chrysella) are potentially rare and/or threatened in the Lake States. Similarity indices and non-metric multidimensional scaling demonstrated that diameter class was the most important deadwood variable influencing polyporoid species occurrence. Aspen-dominated systems show great potential for biomass production, but these forests also support a species-rich community of polyporoid fungi, including potentially rare species.

The Plains Hognose Snake (Heterodon nasicus) has been the focus of many studies due, in part, to this species' interesting morphological characteristics and death-feigning behavior. However, significant gaps exist in our understanding  of this species' natural history. Often perceived to be a semi-fossorial species in the literature, our data suggests that this species spends the majority of its time during the active season above ground. In addition, we provide some of the first data on communal hibernation for this species. Also discussed are observations on nocturnality, oophagy, and reproduction. Given that the plain Hognose Snake is imperiled in many of the states and provinces in which it occurs, additional research is needed to better inform in-situ conservation efforts.

Two intergeneric hybrid snakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi x Pantherophis vulpinus) are described from the midwestern United States; one collected in south central Iowa and the other from southeastern Minnesota. Both specimens are morphologically intermediate between the putative parental species P. c. sayi and P. vulpinus. Hybrid origin was verified by comparing DNA sequence data from the hybrids to the putative parental species. Both hybrid specimens possessed P. c. sayi mitochondrial DNA haplotypes. Examination of the nuclear gene Vimentin (intron 5) showed both specimens were heterozygous at most variable sites confirming their hybrid origin. These snakes represent only the second and third confirmed instances of naturally occurring intergeneric hybridization among squamate reptile species.