Sexual grooming, a common facet of sexual abuse, involves preparing a child for abuse by gaining emotional and/or physical access. However, definitions of sexual grooming vary. The lack of consensus among experts contributes to the difficulty in identifying behaviors that are solely characteristic of sexual groomers, as opposed to behaviors in which a well-intentioned individual might also engage. There are various models and measures that attempt to define sexual grooming after the fact; however, a forensic measure to better detect the likelihood of grooming is necessary for improved prevention. Given that children spend the majority of their time away from home at school, we chose to focus on the educational setting. The current project is an initial stage in the development of the Trauma Research Institute Grooming Scale (TRIGS) and is intended for use in the assessment phase of a clinical or forensic assessment or investigation. The present study of 99 psychologists and educational professionals confirmed the presence of two subcategories of grooming behavior: Desensitization (DS) and Relationship Enhancement (RE). Results demonstrated DS behaviors as more clearly indicative of grooming, whereas RE behaviors were not only less likely to be identified as definite grooming indicators but also produced less agreement as to which items within this category should be seen as problematic. Additionally, all DS behaviors were consensually identified as "red flags" or reportable to an administrator, whereas only a little over a quarter of RE behaviors were seen as such. The initial findings of the TRIGS provide strong evidence for the two distinct categories of grooming behaviors and hold promise for prevention efforts against sexual grooming in schools.

Farina and Schimmenti (2025) offer an intriguing reconceptualization of attachment trauma as a developmental process arising from relational failures, even in the absence of identifiable traumatic events. We support their emphasis on clinical symptom constellations-such as dissociation, emotional dysregulation, and interpersonal detachment-as markers of attachment-related dysfunction. However, we suggest a change in emphasis. We argue that any diagnostic change might target dysfunction in the attachment system itself, rather than infer the presence of trauma. This distinction aligns with diagnostic frameworks that prioritize functional patterns over historical assumptions. We also encourage the development of trauma-informed principles specific to attachment disruptions. These refinements, we believe, would increase diagnostic clarity and better support treatment planning. We believe that the enhanced focus on attachment-related psychopathologies, as proposed by Farina and Schimmenti, is of value but would benefit from further attention to the issue of reliable measurement.

Suicide rates in military-affiliated communities remain elevated since the dawn of the Global War on Terror, despite substantial efforts by clinicians and researchers. While some risk factors have been identified, mixed results need to be clarified. The current study builds on previous research by testing a structural equation model of suicide risk associated with combat experiences that by incorporates risk factors with the most empirical support (combat experiences, guilt, PTSD, depression, and the Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicide [IPTS] factors of Perceived Burdensomeness, Thwarted Belongingness, Acquired Capability), using improved measures, in a more representative sample of Post-9/11 deployers. The models were evaluated separately for each of two different conceptualizations of guilt (trauma-related and interpersonal) as moderating factors. The results show that higher levels of guilt, whether trauma-related or interpersonal, strengthened the relationship between combat experiences and pathology. In contrast to previous studies, intensity of combat experiences was indirectly linked to suicidality through pathology and the IPTS constructs of Perceived Burdensomeness and Acquired Capability. The most prominent pathway to suicidal thoughts and behaviors in both guilt models traveled from combat experiences through PTSD and Perceived Burdensomeness, providing a clear target for clinical and organizational interventions.

Guilt is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and suicidality, all of which are prevalent problems among active-duty and veteran United States military personnel. Most research studying these associations utilize trauma-related guilt conceptualizations. However, researchers have developed and begun testing the Interpersonal Guilt Rating Scale-15 Item Self-Report Version (IGRS-15s), which has shown strong psychometric properties in samples of Italian and English-speaking civilians. The present study evaluated the IGRS-15s in a sample of 229 American Post 9/11 combat veterans to understand its utility in this community. We hypothesized and found a four-factor structure in congruence with prior studies of English-speaking samples. As hypothesized, the IGRS-15s was strongly correlated to other measures of guilt and PTSD and was moderately correlated to a measure of depression. Overall, the measure showed good internal consistency and displayed convergent associations with other measures of guilt. As such, the IGRS-15s may be a useful, brief, self-report tool for assessing guilt in military-affiliated communities.

Nonconsensual sexual media sharing (NSMS) refers to the creation and distribution of nude images without the subject's consent. Although most states now have legislation regarding nonconsensual pornography, little is known regarding the general public's expectations regarding damages associated with NSMS. Thus, this study examined perceptions regarding the impact of NSMS and the appropriateness of varying legal penalties. Cisgender male and female participants (N = 290) completed an online survey and were presented with one of four vignettes detailing a potential NSMS scenario. The manipulated variables were (a) whether the photos had been taken with or without the subject's permission and (b) whether the subject/NSMS victim had or had not engaged in behavior that angered the perpetrator prior to the NSMS. The results indicated that the majority of participants believed that NSMS would result in psychological distress, but women expected the symptoms to be more severe. Women also favored longer jail sentences and higher fines when these images were initially taken without permission. Participants, regardless of gender, reported believing that nude images online would negatively affect hiring decisions. These results suggest that NSMS is considered to be damaging, but beliefs about legal penalties differ between genders. These findings add to the limited research on NSMS by highlighting public perceptions regarding the impact and appropriate legal of NSMS.

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) is the most widely used self-report measure of dissociation but lacks a validity scale. Abu-Rus et al. (2020) created the DES-V by embedding atypical and inconsistency items in the DES, ultimately concluding that atypicality demonstrated the greatest ability to differentiate honest respondents from feigners. Among their study limitations, Abu-Rus et al. noted the homogeneous nature of their clinical group (i.e., largely comprising individuals with PTSD) and the potential need to refine the existing atypicality items for a more heterogenous dissociation population. The current study aimed to refine the DES-V by enlisting dissociation experts to improve the believability of the atypical items (while simultaneously ensuring they did not betoken any actual dissociative symptomology) and by supplementing the online sample with a clinical sample that included a broad range of dissociative disorders. Data cleaning comprised eight different techniques, to better ensure the validity of the online sample. Honest and Feigning groups completed the assessments through Amazon's Mechanical Turk; the clinical dissociative disorder group completed hard copy versions. The atypicality scale discriminated the three groups well, with the Feigning group scoring significantly higher than both of the honest groups (online and clinical). The mean atypicality scores of the two honest groups did not differ significantly. In addition, the scale incremented over the original DES-V in a logistic regression predicting honest and feigning participants. These robust results suggest that the revised DES-V could provide researchers with a valuable tool for validating online samples with greater precision - an increasingly vital need in light of the growing reliance on online samples.

The current study assessed the reliability and validity of three measures of dissociation. Three hundred students completed the Dissociative Experiences Scale Revised (DESR), the Dissociative Experiences Scale-II (DES-II), and the Dissociative Experiences Scale Comparison (DESC); an additional 252 community adults evaluated clarity of instructions. Findings revealed that the three dissociation measures showed acceptable test-retest reliability and Cronbach's alphas. The DESR and DES-II strongly intercorrelated, but the DESC correlated only moderately with the two remaining dissociation measures, sharing less than 10% of the variance with the original scale. Additionally, the DESR and DES-II showed stronger convergent validity (correlation with measures of alexithymia and post-traumatic stress disorder) than did the DESC. The DESC was the only measure unrelated to trauma history. Participants reported substantially greater difficulty in understanding and utilizing the metric offered by the DESC. In conclusion, evidence supports the DES-II and DESR as alternate measures, but the DESC requires more investigation.

Objective: This study sought to determine the utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) in accurately distinguishing genuine dissociative identity disorder (DID) patients from coached and uncoached DID simulators. Method: DID patients (n = 34) who were diagnosed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-Dissociative Disorders were recruited from inpatient and outpatient settings. Coached (n = 25) and uncoached (n = 64) simulator groups were recruited from a Mid-Atlantic university. All participants completed the MMPI-2. Results: MMPI-2 validity scales reliably distinguished simulators from DID patients with high sensitivity (0.95) and specificity (0.97). The scales showing greatest promise making the distinction were F minus K index, back infrequency scale, and superlative self-presentation. Simulators and genuine DID patients also differed in their pattern of symptoms. All results were calculated with White female DID patients and simulators only. Conclusions: Genuine DID patients can be differentiated from simulators. Simulators appear to overweight symptoms of paranoia and alienation relative to mood and somatic symptoms. Further research is needed to generalize these findings to male and non-White populations.

This paper emerged from a five-part exchange on trauma-related dissociation in forensic contexts between the authors and Merckelbach and colleagues (2017–2019). We find important areas of consensus, including that trauma exposure is associated with depersonalization and, occasionally, memory errors; reports of dissociative symptoms may be elevated due to non-trauma factors; error rates for diagnosing dissociative identity disorder are low; and multiple sources of information are required for assessing any symptom, including dissociation, in forensic contexts. Our goals in this paper are to accurately summarize our evidence-based position about dissociation as it relates to forensic contexts and to call for more scientific discourse and less motivated skepticism by all involved scholars. We enumerate and demonstrate our critics’ reliance on eight forms of rhetoric that are largely rejected by the scientific community. We illustrate these forms of argument using Merckelbach et al.’s published responses in this lengthy debate as exemplars. Recognition of our critics’ reliance on these forms of argumentation is crucial to making further substantial progress in this debate. We argue that recovered memories of trauma should be evaluated in court using the same criteria that would be used with any other memory, including seeking out and evaluating corroborating and disconfirming evidence. We conclude by emphasizing the importance of comprehensive, unbiased assessments of dissociation in reported trauma-related forensic cases and suggest areas where research is needed.

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES), the most commonly used scale for assessing dissociation across settings, lacks a validity scale. In this study, six methods of enhancing validity were utilized: vocabulary and duration screening, manipulation checks, inconsistency, atypicality, and structure (unlikely pattern of responses). Six reverse-worded DES questions were developed to assess inconsistency, six questions regarding extremely rare or unknown symptoms assessed atypicality, and the difference between taxon and absorption items assessed structure. Honest, feigning, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) groups completed the assessment (N = 345) via Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) or SurveyMonkey. All groups received a brief definition of dissociation. The honest/PTSD groups were asked to complete the survey honestly. The feigning group members were asked to pretend to be someone with dissociative symptoms. Failure of the vocabulary, duration, or manipulation check validations led to 72 exclusions. The three groups differed significantly on the inconsistent items, the atypical items, and structure items,F(2, 271) > 7.52,p < .001, with the feigning group consistently performing worse than the two honest groups. The DES with validity scale may be most useful for community survey studies in which there is a high risk of malingering or feigning.

Little is known about the comparative knowledge base and use of testing among psychiatrists and psychologists, although both groups are asked to make critical diagnostic decisions based on test results. In this research, 102 psychiatrists and 108 psychologists (approximately half in forensic practice) completed a survey on psychological testing. Psychologists reported more knowledge about tests of trauma and tests of malingering than psychiatrists, but both psychologists and psychiatrists were less knowledgeable about malingering tests as compared to other psychological tests. Psychiatrists also reported greater expertise than did psychologists in tests of psychotic process. Although both psychologists and psychiatrists preferred diagnostic decisions based on interview and testing rather than interview alone, psychologists rated the incremental utility of testing more strongly than did psychiatrists. More than 85% of psychologists and approximately two-thirds of psychiatrists reported that testing plus interview was more likely than interview alone to yield an accurate diagnosis. Psychiatrists showed more faith in the clinical interview as a sole diagnostic instrument than did psychologists, and psychiatrists were less likely than psychologists to report that the inclusion of malingering tests was crucial in forensic settings.

Objective: There is little research in the current literature regarding contributing factors to nightmares in children. This study aimed to test potentially overlapping predictors of nightmare distress and severity, including anxiety, dissociation, trauma history, vagal tone, and parental processing of emotions. Method: Sixty parent–child dyads (children ages 6–11) filled out a variety of child-report and parent-observation inventories on nightmare frequency and distress, dissociation, anxiety, and trauma history of the child. Children were monitored on heart rate variability and vagal tone. Both parent and child participated in a discussion of positive and negative life events that were later coded for degree of parent processing of emotional information. Results: Anxiety, trauma history, dissociation, and baseline vagal tone accounted for 39% of the variance in nightmare distress. Anxiety and dissociation were positive predictors of nightmare distress in the multiple regression. Parent processing variables were weak predictors in the current analysis. Conclusions: The predictive power of anxiety, dissociation, vagal tone, and trauma history was not entirely due to their overlap, as shown by uniquely significant beta weights in the prediction of distress. Treatment procedures with multiple intervention points targeting physiological and psychological sources of nightmare distress may be warranted.

Dissociation is commonly a response to trauma that can be associated with significant impairment. In order to deal with dissociation in court from a comprehensive, scientifically informed, and valid perspective, Brand, Schielke, and Brams (Psychological Injury and Law, 10, 283-297, 2017a, b) provided a balanced view of dissociation, its characteristics, evidence base, and best assessment practices. Without an approach such as this, forensic experts risk having insufficient knowledge in its causation, phenomenology, and assessment and accordingly misunderstand trauma-related dissociation (TRD). Brand et al. (Psychological Injury and Law, 10, 283-297, 2017a, b) addressed this issue by providing an overview of TRD relevant to forensic contexts, acknowledging some of the erroneous and misinformed approaches to the topic. Merckelbach and Patihis (2018) offered a critique of Brand et al. (Psychological Injury and Law, 10, 283-297, 2017a, b) that illustrated this lack of knowledge and misunderstanding about TRD. Many of the statements made by these authors are conceptually inaccurate or scientifically misinformed. As we show, they were incorrect when they stated that research is lacking about the inter-rater reliability of dissociative disorder (DD) diagnoses. They were unaware of the error rates of tests and interviews among dissociative samples, which we present here. Merckelbach and Patihis challenged Brand et al., arguing their methods and literature review “lacked a connectivity to existing science” (p. 3), despite extensive citations of studies with DD patients. They argued that we failed to adequately consider malingering despite our discussions of empirically supported methods for assessing it. We show that Merckelbach and Patihis overlooked research that does not support their views. As we review their comments, we illustrate their pattern of misreading and misunderstanding our papers, as well as lapses in their reasoning. The current paper reinforces that in the forensic context, experts can acquire adequate understanding of TRD and its evidence base, and put forward arguments against any harsh critique of the area that is uninformed about, misunderstands, or includes omissions and errors in critical conceptualization, state-of-the-art assessment practices, and research methodology and results.