The objective of this study was to evaluate the possible role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR: PPAR-α, PPAR-β/δ, and PPAR-γ) in diet and CLA-induced milk fat depression (MFD) in dairy cows. We hypothesized that the expression of PPAR, which regulate lipid metabolism and bind to PUFA, could be modulated by biohydrogenation intermediates that induce MFD, thereby interfering with milk fat synthesis. First, tissue profiling revealed that PPAR-α and PPAR-β/δ had low expression in mammary tissue compared with the liver. A comparison of lactating and nonlactating tissue from the same cows showed that expression of all 3 PPAR isoforms did increase during lactation. Mammary expression of the PPAR family during MFD was then observed in 9 mid-lactation cows in a 3 × 3 Latin square design with MFD induced by a 3-d intravenous infusion of trans-10,cis-12 CLA or feeding a high-oil and low-forage diet. The expression of all 3 PPAR isoforms remained largely unaltered during CLA and diet-induced MFD, except for an increase in PPAR-α target genes CPT1A and ACADVL that are involved in β-oxidation. The interaction of PPAR-γ chemical agonist troglitazone and antagonist T0070907 and CLA was then investigated in bovine mammary epithelial cells. The activation and inhibition of PPAR-γ did not overcome trans-10,cis-12 CLA inhibition of lipogenesis despite the agonist stimulating PPAR-γ expression. Furthermore, PPAR-γ activation did not modify the expression of lipogenic genes. Overall, the results fail to support a functional role of the PPAR family in the inhibition of lipogenesis during MFD in dairy cows.

Trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a potent inhibitor of milk fat synthesis in the cow and similarly reduces milk fat in rodents. The objective of this study was to determine whether dietary fat can overcome CLA inhibition of milk fat concentration in lactating mice. Wild type C57Bl/6J mice (n = 31) were fed semipurified diets containing either low fat (LF; 4% fat) or high fat (HF; 23.6% fat) starting 4-6 days postpartum. Dietary fat was increased by inclusion of high oleic sunflower oil. After 2 days on the experimental diets, lactating dams were orally dosed with either water (control) or trans-10, cis-12 CLA (20 mg/day) for 5 days. CLA treatment decreased pup growth similarly in both HF and LF diets. Milk fat percent was increased over 16% by the HF diet and decreased over 12% by CLA, but there was no interaction of dietary fat and CLA. Both CLA and the HF diet reduced the proportion of short- and medium-chain fatty acids that originate from de novo synthesis, and there was no interaction of diet and CLA. CLA had no effect on the percent of preformed fatty acids, but the HF diet increased their abundance. Dietary fat and CLA both modified mammary expression of lipogenic enzymes and regulators, but no interactions were observed. In conclusion, CLA reduced milk fat concentration and litter growth, but these effects were not overcome by increased dietary fat from high oleic sunflower oil. CLA inhibition of milk fat in the mammary gland is not substrate dependent, and the mechanism is independent from dietary supply of oleic acid.

Since the end of the Second World War, the United States has pursued a national policy of an abundant and inexpensive food supply. This policy has been hugely successful at meeting these goals. The average share of disposable personal income spent on total food by consumers in the U.S. from 1960 to 2018 fell from 16.8% to 9.7%, driven by a declining share of income spent on food at home (Figure 1). Concomitantly, increased animal productivity has improved efficiencies of animal production and reduced the carbon footprint for production of meat, milk, and eggs (Capper 2011; Capper and Cady 2020; Pelletier, Ibarburu, and Xin 2014; Putman et al. 2017; Thornton 2010).

espanolEl efecto antilipogenico del acido linoleico conjugado (CLA) se ha evaluado en la vaca lechera,hipotetizandose que el CLA afecta la sintesis de novo, pero por no ser la principal ruta de sintesis de acidos grasos(AG), se desconoce a que nivel el CLA esta inhibiendo dicha sintesis. En las conejas la sintesis de novo es la principal ruta dela sintesis de AG pero se desconoce si el CLA cambia la composicion quimica de su leche o altera el perfil de sus AG, por lo que en este estudio se evaluo el efecto de la suplementacion oral del CLA sobre la composicion quimica y el perfil de los AG de la leche de conejas durante los primeros 12 dias de lactancia. Se emplearon 18 conejas Nueva Zelanda asignadas al azar entre el tratamiento 1) grupo control;y el tratamiento 2) suplementacion oral de 310 mg CLA/kg de peso metabolico. A partir del dia 5 y hasta el 12 postparto, se administro diariamente viaoral el CLA (Tonalin FFA, BASF®) y se obtuvieron muestras individuales de leche obtenidas por ordena manual. El perfil de los AG se determino por cromatografia de gases y cuantificados empleando estandares internos. El CLA suplementado no altero la composicion quimica de la leche de las conejas, pero modifico el perfil de los AG de lagrasa de leche reduciendo los AG de cadena larga mono-insaturados y poli-insaturados e incrementando la concentracion de C21:0y de los isomeros de C18:2, CLAcis9,trans11 y CLAtrans-10,cis-12. EnglishThe antilipogenic effect of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been evaluated in the dairy cow, with thehypothesis that CLA affects de novo synthesis, but since that is not the main pathway for their fatty acid (FA)synthesis, it is not known at what level is CLA inhibiting such synthesis. In rabbits, de novo synthesis is the mainroute for FA synthesis, but is not known if in this species CLA changes milk composition or alters its FA profile,therefore the present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of oral supplementation of CLA on the chemicalcomposition and the FA profile of milk from rabbits during the first 12 days of lactation. Eighteen multiparous NewZealand rabbits were randomly assigned into treatment 1) control group, and treatment 2) supplemented with 310mg CLA/kg de metabolic body weight. From days 5 to 12 postpartum, CLA (Tonalin FFA, BASF®) was orallyadministered daily and individual milk samples were collected manually. FA profile was identified by gaschromatography and quantified by internal standards. CLA supplementation did not alter chemical composition ofthe rabbits’ milk, but modified the FA profile of the milk fat reducing mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated longchain FA and increasing the concentration of C21:0and of the C18:2isomerscis-9,trans-11 CLA andtrans-10,cis-12CLA.

The relationship between the fatty acid (FA) profile of cecotrophs and that of the milk fat was evaluated in nine multiparous New Zealand does during the first 12 days of lactation. Milk samples were obtained manually on days 6, 8, 10, and 12 postpartum and cecotrophs and feces were collected on days 7, 9, and 11 postpartum. The FA profiles of feed, milk, cecotrophs, and feces were determined using gas chromatography. The principal FA found in rabbits' milk were 8:0, 10:0, 16:0, 18:1 cis-9, and 18:2 n-6. Bacteria-derived FA found in the milk fat included branched FA from 14 to 16 carbons, and 18:1 trans. Two isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) were also present, namely cis-9,trans-11 (0.09 ± 0.006 mol%) and trans-10,cis-12 (0.06 ± 0.01 mol%). The content of total FA in the cecotrophs was the 1.10 ± 0.08 mg/100 mg freeze-dried sample, with 2.50 ± 0.83 mol% 18:1 trans-11. Significant correlations between cecotroph and milk FA profiles were found for numerous FA, and those with correlation coefficients greater than 0.90 were 12:0, 14:0, 15:0, 16:0, 18:0, 18:1 trans-6/8, 18:1 trans-9, 18:1 cis-9, 18:2 n-6, 18:3 n-3, 20:1 cis-9, 20:2 n-6, and 22:0. Cecum biohydrogenation processes were evident based on the greater content of saturated FA (p = 0.008) found (54.46 ± 4.37 mol%) in the cecotrophs relative to that in feces (43.08 ± 4.37 mol%). Under conditions of the present study, the milk FA profile was influenced by the FA profile of diet and the cecotrophs consumed by lactating does.

Fat is the most variable milk component, and maintaining milk fat continues to be a challenge on commercial dairy farms. Our objectives were to establish associations between herd-level risk factors for milk fat depression and bulk tank milk fat content in commercial dairy herds feeding monensin. Seventy-nine Holstein commercial dairy herds in the northeast and Upper Midwest United States were enrolled in an observational study. Data were collected on herd characteristics, total mixed ration (TMR) samples, all component silage samples, and bulk tank milk samples. The unconditional univariable association of each explanatory variable and bulk tank milk fat percentage was evaluated using simple linear regression and multivariable regression models. Milk fat content of trans-10 C18:1 had an exponentially negative relationship to herd milk fat percentage. In general, milk fat content of fatty acids synthesized de novo in the mammary gland were positively related to herd milk fat, and the content of several trans-C18:1 fatty acids, which would be products of alternate pathways of ruminal biohydrogenation, were negatively related to herd milk fat. Variables related to TMR composition did not have univariable relationships with herd milk fat percentage. Herds that had >49.8% of the TMR particles on the middle screen of the Penn State particle separator had higher milk fat percentage than those with ≤49.8%, and herds with >54.0% of TMR particles in the bottom pan had lower milk fat percentage than herds with ≤54.0%. Dietary content of monounsaturated fatty acids (C16:1 and C18:1) had negative relationships with herd milk fat percentage; however, no single diet component accounted for more than 11% of the variation in herd-level milk fat percentage. Univariable monensin dose was not associated with herd milk fat percentage. The relative lack of significant univariate relationships with herd-level milk fat suggests many factors contribute to milk fat content, and herds experiencing low milk fat will need to examine many potential risk factors when working to troubleshoot this challenge.

Trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been identified as an intermediate of rumen fatty acid biohydrogenation that caused milk fat depression (MFD) in the dairy cow. Previous studies in cows experiencing CLA- and diet-induced MFD have identified reduced mammary expression of the master lipogenic regulator sterol response element transcription factor 1 (SREBF1) and many of its dependent genes. To distinguish between primary mechanisms regulating milk fat synthesis and secondary adaptations to the reduction in milk fat, we conducted a time-course experiment. Eleven dairy cows received by abomasal infusion an initial priming dose of 6.25 g of CLA followed by 12.5 g/d delivered in multiple pulses per day for 5 d. Cows were milked 3×/d and mammary biopsies were obtained under basal condition (prebolus control) and 12, 30, and 120 h relative to initiation of CLA infusion. Milk fat concentration and yield decreased progressively reaching a nadir at 69 h (1.82% and 38.2 g/h) and averaged 2.03 ± 0.19% and 42.1 ± 4.10 g/h on the last day of treatment (±standard deviation). Expression of fatty acid synthase (FASN) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) were decreased at 30 and 120 h compared with control. Expression of SREBF1 and THRSP were also decreased at 30 and 120 h compared with control. Additionally, we failed to observe changes in other factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and liver × receptor β and milk fat globular membrane proteins, during CLA treatment. However, expression of milk fat globular membrane proteins were decreased after 14 d of diet-induced MFD in samples from a previous experiment, indicating a possible long-term response. The rapid decrease in lipogenic enzymes, SREBF1, and THRSP provide strong support for their transcriptional regulation as a primary mechanism of milk fat depression.

High among the challenges facing mankind as the world population rapidly expands toward 9 billion people by 2050 is the technological development and implementation of sustainable agriculture and food systems to supply abundant and wholesome nutrition. In many low-income societies, women and children are the most vulnerable to food insecurity, and it is unequivocal that quality nutrition during the first 1000 d of life postconception can be transformative in establishing a robust, lifelong developmental trajectory. With the desire to catalyze disruptive advancements in global maternal and child health, this landscape review was commissioned by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to examine the nutritional and managerial practices used within the food-animal agricultural system that may have relevance to the challenges faced by global human health. The landscape was categorized into a framework spanning 1) preconception, 2) gestation and pregnancy, 3) lactation and suckling, and 4) postweaning and toddler phases. Twelve key findings are outlined, wherein research within the discipline of animal sciences stands to inform the global health community and in some cases identifies gaps in knowledge in which further research is merited. Notable among the findings were 1) the quantitative importance of essential fatty acid and amino acid nutrition in reproductive health, 2) the suggested application of the ideal protein concept for improving the amino acid nutrition of mothers and children, 3) the prospect of using dietary phytase to improve the bioavailability of trace minerals in plant and vegetable-based diets, and 4) nutritional interventions to mitigate environmental enteropathy. The desired outcome of this review was to identify potential interventions that may be worthy of consideration. Better appreciation of the close linkage between human health, medicine, and agriculture will identify opportunities that will enable faster and more efficient innovations in global maternal and child health.

The latter half of the 20th century and the early portion of the 21st century will be recognized as the "Golden Age" of lactation biology. This period corresponded with the rise of systemic, metabolomic, molecular, and genomic biology. It includes the discovery of the structure of DNA and ends with the sequencing of the complete genomes of humans and all major domestic animal species including the dairy cow. This included the ability to identify polymorphisms in the nucleic acid sequence, which can be tied to specific differences in cellular, tissue, and animal performance. Before this period, classical work using endocrine ablation and replacement studies identified the mammary gland as an endocrine-dependent organ. In the early 1960s, the development of RIA and radioreceptor assays permitted the study of the relationship between endocrine patterns and mammary function. The ability to measure nucleic acid content of tissues opened the door to study of the factors regulating mammary growth. The development of high-speed centrifugation in the 1960s allowed separation of specific cell organelles and their membranes. The development of transmission and scanning electron microscopy permitted the study of the relationship between structure and function in the mammary secretory cell. The availability of radiolabeled metabolites provided the opportunity to investigate the metabolic pathways and their regulation. The development of concepts regarding the coordination of metabolism to support lactation integrated our understanding of nutrient partitioning and homeostasis. The ability to produce recombinant molecules and organisms permitted enhancement of lactation in farm animal species and the production of milk containing proteins of value to human medicine. These discoveries and others contributed to vastly increased dairy farm productivity in the United States and worldwide. This review will include the discussion of the centers of excellence and scientists who labored in these fields to produce the harvest of knowledge we enjoy today.

The heritability of milk yield is 0.25, which indicates that only 25% of the difference between milk yield in cattle is due to their genomic makeup while fully 75% is due to the environment the cow is in, which includes all management, environmental, and physical factors impacting cows during their lactation. Primary genetic factors influence the amount of secretory tissue and the endocrine regulation of lactation and metabolism. Mammary gland development and lactation are under endocrine regulation, and the process of lactation is also considered to be homeorhetic in nature as the metabolism of the animal is coordinated to meet the metabolic demands of milk synthesis for the developing neonate. Key hormones regulating the process of growth and lactation involve steroid and protein hormones and growth factors. Three management tools consistently increase milk yield in lactating dairy cows during established lactation: administrating exogenous bovine somatotropin (bST), increased milking frequency, and increased photoperiod. Short-day length during the dry period also increases milk yield postpartum. Season of year affects both yield and composition of milk. Seasonal variables known to impact milk and composition yield are photoperiod and thermal environmental variables such as temperature, wind speed, solar infrared load, and humidity. Milk composition can also be markedly altered by nutritional management. This permits the opportunity to improve the nutritional value of milk by altering milk composition through dietary management.

The latter half of the 20th century and the early portion of the 21st century will be recognized as the "Golden Age" of lactation biology. This period corresponded with the rise of systemic, metabolomic, molecular, and genomic biology. It includes the discovery of the structure of DNA and ends with the sequencing of the complete genomes of humans and all major domestic animal species including the dairy cow. This included the ability to identify polymorphisms in the nucleic acid sequence, which can be tied to specific differences in cellular, tissue, and animal performance. Before this period, classical work using endocrine ablation and replacement studies identified the mammary gland as an endocrine-dependent organ. In the early 1960s, the development of RIA and radioreceptor assays permitted the study of the relationship between endocrine patterns and mammary function. The ability to measure nucleic acid content of tissues opened the door to study of the factors regulating mammary growth. The development of high-speed centrifugation in the 1960s allowed separation of specific cell organelles and their membranes. The development of transmission and scanning electron microscopy permitted the study of the relationship between structure and function in the mammary secretory cell. The availability of radiolabeled metabolites provided the opportunity to investigate the metabolic pathways and their regulation. The development of concepts regarding the coordination of metabolism to support lactation integrated our understanding of nutrient partitioning and homeostasis. The ability to produce recombinant molecules and organisms permitted enhancement of lactation in farm animal species and the production of milk containing proteins of value to human medicine. These discoveries and others contributed to vastly increased dairy farm productivity in the United States and worldwide. This review will include the discussion of the centers of excellence and scientists who labored in these fields to produce the harvest of knowledge we enjoy today.

We have seen remarkable advances in animal productivity in the last 75 years, with annual milk yield per cow increasing over 4-fold and no evidence of nearing a plateau. Because of these gains in productive efficiency, there have been dramatic reductions in resource inputs and the carbon footprint per unit of milk produced. The primary source for the historic gains relates to animal variation in nutrient partitioning. The regulation of nutrient use for productive functions has the overall goal of maintaining the cow's well-being regardless of the physiological or environmental challenges. From a conceptual standpoint, it involves both acute homeostatic controls operating on a minute-by-minute basis and chronic homeorhetic controls operating on a long-term basis to provide orchestrated adaptations that coordinate tissues and body processes. This endocrine regulation is mediated by changes in circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones, hormone membrane receptors and intracellular signaling pathways. The coordination of tissues and physiological systems includes a plethora of hormones, but insulin and somatotropin are 2 key regulators of nutrient trafficking. Herein, we review the advances in our understanding of both conceptual and actual regulation of nutrient partitioning in support of milk synthesis and identify examples of the challenges and future opportunities in dairy science.

The latter half of the 20th century and the early portion of the 21st century will be recognized as the “Golden Age” of lactation biology. This period corresponded with the rise of systemic, metabolomic, molecular, and genomic biology. It includes the discovery of the structure of DNA and ends with the sequencing of the complete genomes of humans and all major domestic animal species including the dairy cow. This included the ability to identify polymorphisms in the nucleic acid sequence, which can be tied to specific differences in cellular, tissue, and animal performance. Before this period, classical work using endocrine ablation and replacement studies identified the mammary gland as an endocrine-dependent organ. In the early 1960s, the development of RIA and radioreceptor assays permitted the study of the relationship between endocrine patterns and mammary function. The ability to measure nucleic acid content of tissues opened the door to study of the factors regulating mammary growth. The development of high-speed centrifugation in the 1960s allowed separation of specific cell organelles and their membranes. The development of transmission and scanning electron microscopy permitted the study of the relationship between structure and function in the mammary secretory cell. The availability of radiolabeled metabolites provided the opportunity to investigate the metabolic pathways and their regulation. The development of concepts regarding the coordination of metabolism to support lactation integrated our understanding of nutrient partitioning and homeostasis. The ability to produce recombinant molecules and organisms permitted enhancement of lactation in farm animal species and the production of milk containing proteins of value to human medicine. These discoveries and others contributed to vastly increased dairy farm productivity in the United States and worldwide. This review will include the discussion of the centers of excellence and scientists who labored in these fields to produce the harvest of knowledge we enjoy today.

Recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST) is a production-enhancing technology that allows the dairy industry to produce milk more efficiently. Concern has been raised that cows supplemented with rbST are at an increased risk of developing clinical mastitis, which would potentially increase the use of antimicrobial agents and increase human illnesses associated with antimicrobial-resistant bacterial pathogens delivered through the dairy beef supply. The purpose of this study was to conduct a quantitative risk assessment to estimate the potential increased risk of human infection with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and subsequent adverse health outcomes as a result of rbST usage in dairy cattle. The quantitative risk assessment included the following steps: (i) release of antimicrobial-resistant organisms from the farm, (ii) exposure of humans via consumption of contaminated beef products, and (iii) consequence of the antimicrobial-resistant infection. The model focused on ceftiofur (parenteral and intramammary) and oxytetracycline (parenteral) treatment of clinical mastitis in dairy cattle and tracked the bacteria Campylobacter spp., Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica, and Escherichia coli in the gastrointestinal tract of the cow. Parameter estimates were developed to be maximum risk to overestimate the risk to humans. The excess number of cows in the U.S. dairy herd that were predicted to carry resistant bacteria at slaughter due to rbST administration was negligible. The total number of excess human illnesses caused by resistant bacteria due to rbST administration was also predicted to be negligible with all risks considerably less than one event per 1 billion people at risk per year for all bacteria. The results indicate a high probability that the use of rbST according to label instructions presents a negligible risk for increasing the number of human illnesses and subsequent adverse outcomes associated with antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter, Salmonella, or E. coli .

The main challenges to ensuring optimal nutrition of children in low-income and middle-income settings are prevention of undernutrition—including intrauterine growth restriction, stunting, and micronutrient deficiencies—and avoidance of becoming overweight.1Black RE Victora CG Walker SP et al.Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries.Lancet. 2013; 382: 427-451Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (4307) Google Scholar Birth cohort studies show that linear growth in early life is associated with improved human capital (including intelligence, educational performance, and productivity) and has few, if any, deleterious effects regarding future risk of non-communicable diseases.2Adair LS Fall CH Osmond C et al.Associations of linear growth and relative weight gain during early life with adult health and human capital in countries of low and middle income: findings from five birth cohort studies.Lancet. 2013; 382: 525-534Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (521) Google Scholar By contrast, rapid weight gain, above and beyond what is required for linear growth, does not confer any benefits in terms of human capital and is associated with an increased risk of chronic diseases.2Adair LS Fall CH Osmond C et al.Associations of linear growth and relative weight gain during early life with adult health and human capital in countries of low and middle income: findings from five birth cohort studies.Lancet. 2013; 382: 525-534Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (521) Google Scholar Early undernutrition followed by exposure to an obesogenic diet in later childhood seems to result in especially poor outcomes. Ensuring that young children achieve optimal linear growth without putting on excessive weight represents a major challenge to public health and nutrition. In 1951, the British nutritionist Isabella Leitch proposed an analogy between the growth of piglets and children.3Leitch I Growth and health.Br J Nutr. 1951; 5: 142-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar Studying pigs that were undernourished early in life and then fed appropriately, she concluded that “skeleton and muscle will not grow as they would have done if they had had the opportunity at the right time, and the extra food will be used mainly to lay on fat”.3Leitch I Growth and health.Br J Nutr. 1951; 5: 142-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar She referred to these animals as “low-high”3Leitch I Growth and health.Br J Nutr. 1951; 5: 142-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar pigs, and proposed they would be better off by remaining thin than by putting on weight, arguing that this condition “can probably be prevented only by the continuation of a spartan regime throughout life, which seems a bit hard”.3Leitch I Growth and health.Br J Nutr. 1951; 5: 142-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar Whether Leitch's ideas were correct and her proposed interventions feasible, she was undoubtedly a pioneer in attempting to translate results from applied animal science to human nutrition.4Victora CG Barros FC Commentary: the catch-up dilemma—relevance of Leitch's ‘low-high’ pig to child growth in developing countries.Int J Epidemiol. 2001; 30: 217-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar Anyone who has seen or eaten pork for the past few decades will have noticed that today's animals have a larger skeletal frame and that their meat has become much leaner over time. This is partly because of breeding, but also because of precise formulation of animal diets.5National Research CouncilNutrient requirements of swine. 11th edn. The National Academy Press, Washington, DC2012Google Scholar Could new approaches to global nutrition lead to interventions that would make children grow tall without putting on excessive fat, as is the case for present-day piglets? Animal science has been addressing this issue for a long time, although with rigorous studies that cannot be conducted in humans. More than 60 years after Leitch's paper,3Leitch I Growth and health.Br J Nutr. 1951; 5: 142-151Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar Jack Odle and colleagues produced a landscape review6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar to address a crucial question: what can global human nutrition learn from animal science? The review covered four main areas, known in the global health literature as the continuum of care: preconception, gestation and pregnancy, lactation and suckling, and post-weaning and toddler phases. This review6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar resulted in more than a dozen key findings, suggesting some potential interventions that receive scant attention in global nutrition at present. In particular, the review highlighted “the quantitative importance of essential fatty acid and aminoacid nutrition in reproductive health; the suggested application of the ideal protein concept for improving the aminoacid nutrition of mothers and children; the prospect of using dietary phytase to improve the bioavailability of trace minerals in plant and vegetable-based diets; and nutritional interventions to mitigate environmental enteropathy”.6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar The table shows the contrast between Odle and colleagues' potential recommendations and the comprehensive list of effective diet-related interventions published in the 2013 Lancet Nutrition Series (table).7Bhutta ZA Das JK Rizvi A et al.Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost?.Lancet. 2013; 382: 452-477Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1625) Google ScholarTableMain findings from Odle and colleagues' review6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar and status of interventions in global nutrition programmes7Bhutta ZA Das JK Rizvi A et al.Evidence-based interventions for improvement of maternal and child nutrition: what can be done and at what cost?.Lancet. 2013; 382: 452-477Summary Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1625) Google ScholarMain effects on animal healthGlobal health considerationsPreconception–conceptionEarly correction of nutrition excessNormalises fetal growth, adiposity, and glucose–insulin metabolismAt present, no emphasis on correction of overweight before conceptionCorrection of energy deficitImproves oocyte and embryo qualityEmphasis has so far been on correction of pre-conceptional underweight (through balanced energy–protein supplementation) and micronutrient deficiencies (eg, iron–folic acid and multiple micronutrients)Optimisation of essential fatty acid intakeImproves oestrus expression, conception, and maintenance of pregnancyInterventions for increasing intake of essential fatty acids are not part of global programmesGestation–pregnancyAlleviation of hyperthermiaImproves placental and fetal weight, and postnatal lean growth (more protein and less lipid)No global recommendations for reduction of exposure to heat among pregnant women, which might represent a growing problem because of climate changeOptimisation of energy and aminoacid feeding, especially to young mothers to support gestation and lactationImproves maternal tissue, fetal growth, milk production, and postnatal growthBalanced energy-protein supplementation has long been a cornerstone of maternal nutrition in poor settings, but emphasis seems to have shifted to supplementation with specific micronutrients; prevention of adolescent pregnancies and improvement of the health of adolescent girls are priority actionsOptimisation of essential aminoacid intakes by formulation of diets for so-called ideal proteinSupports protein accretion rates in conceptus and maternal tissues by preventing aminoacid deficitEmphasis on specific essential aminoacids is not an important component of global health and nutrition interventionsOptimisation of intake of functional aminoacids and fatty acidsImproves conceptus viability, development, and growthEmphasis on specific essential aminoacids is not an important component of global health and nutrition interventionsLactation–sucklingEnsuring adequate intake of quality colostrum; maternal vaccinationReduces mortality and improves intestinal health of the youngIntake of colostrum and early initiation of breastfeeding receive growing attentionIncreased fat content in lactation dietsIncreases milk fat content and neonatal growth and developmentManipulation of maternal diets to change the volume and composition of breastmilk is not part of global programmes, other than supplementary feeding for severely undernourished women during lactationOptimisation of essential aminoacid intakes by formulation of diets for so-called ideal proteinSupports milk production, growth, and development of suckling offspring, and maternal body condition by prevention of aminoacid deficitsManipulation of maternal diets to change the volume and composition of breastmilk is not part of global programmes, other than supplementary feeding for severely undernourished women during lactationJudicious supplementation with nutritionally balanced full-strength milk formulaMaintains neonatal growth when breastmilk is insufficient because of infection, agalactia, or heat stressGlobal recommendations discourage introduction of formula or animal milk, particularly before the age of 6 months, because of the increased risk of infectious diseasesPostweaning–toddlerOptimisation of essential aminoacid intakes by formulating diets for so-called ideal proteinSupports healthy lean growthAlthough nutrition counselling programmes promote the intake of high-quality animal protein, no emphasis on specific aminoacidsSupplementation of diets with phytaseImproves bioavailability of iron and zinc in plant foodsPhytase supplementation is not part of global nutrition programmesDietary medium-chain fatty acids, glutamine, arginine, plasma proteins, lactoferrin, and zincImproves aspects of intestinal health and might promote growth, especially under challenging environmental conditionsIron and zinc supplements are promoted in global programmes, but not fatty acids, aminoacids, or plasma proteins Open table in a new tab From the end of World War 2, the global community regarded protein deficiency to be the major nutritional problem in poor countries and called for policies and programmes to close the so-called protein gap. In the mid-1970s, prominent nutritionists declared this to be fallacious using terms such as “the great protein fiasco”8Semba RD The rise and fall of protein malnutrition in global health.Ann Nutr Metab. 2016; 69: 79-88Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar and world attention shifted from protein quantity and quality, to quantity of food. More recently, the concern with quality returned but with a focus on micronutrients. The first major difference with respect to animal research is the extent to which human programmes today focus on micronutrients. At different stages during the continuum of care, global nutrition relies on promotion of intake of folic acid, iron, calcium, iodine, vitamin K, vitamin A, and multiple micronutrient supplements. By contrast, animal studies give more comprehensive attention to macronutrients, such as specific aminoacids and fatty acids, which are not considered at all in global human nutrition programmes. Even programmes that promote nutrition counselling with use of locally grown foods or provision of protein-energy supplements do not focus on specific macronutrients. Odle and colleagues6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar emphasise that, in the case of protein and fat, it is crucial to consider both the quantity provided by the diet as well as the pattern of essential aminoacids and fatty acids ingested. They further declare that “the basic information needed to formulate diets to meet aminoacid needs in humans represents a serious gap in knowledge”,6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar unlike animal science where aminoacid patterns resulting in ideal proteins are well described and widely used.5National Research CouncilNutrient requirements of swine. 11th edn. The National Academy Press, Washington, DC2012Google Scholar, 6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar This is not to imply that micronutrient supplementation does not have a major place in global nutrition. Indeed, animal studies are strongly supportive, for example, of zinc supplementation to prevent environmental enteropathy leading to growth failure. What strikes us is how concerns with micronutrients might have distracted attention from consideration of essential macronutrients and the interplay between micronutrient and macronutrient deficiencies that commonly exist in low-income and middle-income countries. Odle and colleagues6Odle J Jacobi SK Boyd RD et al.The potential impact of animal science research on global maternal and child nutrition and health: a landscape review.Adv Nutr. 2017; 8: 362-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar also suggest some innovative potential interventions in areas that are unexplored in global nutrition. Temperature control, widely used in animals to avoid heat stress, is not mentioned in global programmes. Admittedly, temperature control is difficult to implement at large scale in a cost-effective manner. Dietary microaddition of phytase aimed at destruction of phytic acid, a powerful antinutrient, is also worthy of further exploration in global nutrition. Regarding lactation, maternal supplementation to modulate the quantity and quality of human milk has received little attention in global health, as there is a common assumption that the quality of breastmilk is relatively constant even among undernourished mothers, and that these women are able to produce enough milk. By stark contrast, such interventions are widely used in animal science, with well-documented effects on milk quality and quantity, and a striking effect on litter growth. Animal scientists sometimes use formula to supplement breastmilk if there is evidence of growth faltering. By contrast, the risk of infections and mortality led the global nutrition community to strongly discourage the use of formula and feeding bottles in early infancy. Renewed attention to maternal diets might help improve infant growth in the first 6 months of life, when exclusive breastfeeding is essential for preventing infections, yet growth faltering is already taking place.9Victora CG de Onis M Hallal PC Blössner M Shrimpton R Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions.Pediatrics. 2010; 125: e473-e480Crossref PubMed Scopus (899) Google Scholar Animal scientists have been remarkably successful in reducing mortality and growth faltering in controlled breeding situations, and in producing animals that are lean and achieve their full growth potential. Global nutrition has much to learn in this respect. Not all interventions will be effective, feasible, or even desirable for humans. Furthermore, neurocognitive outcomes—a priority for global child health—are not assessed in animal science. However, robust findings from the long history of experimentation in animal science suggest that the time for some lateral thinking in global nutrition is long overdue. JO reports grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation during the conduct of the study. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Historically, the dairy industry has made remarkable gains in productivity and a gallon of milk can be produced today with less feed resource inputs and a markedly reduced carbon footprint. Recombinant bovine somatotropin is a production-enhancing technology and 20 years commercial use of POSILAC® (rbST-Zn) provided the backdrop for an updated meta-analysis of effects on cow health and welfare. Our meta-analysis used data from peer reviewed publications or regulatory reports in which the commercial formulation of rbST-Zn was used was according to label specifications. Twenty six studies were identified which had usable data (13,784 cows). Results indicated milk yield was increased by about 9 lb/d whereas milk fat, protein, and lactose content were unaltered. For health and welfare variables, treatment with rbST-Zn had little or no effect on udder health, reproduction, lameness, body condition or culling. Overall, these results and 20 years of US commercial experience demonstrate that management practices used by US dairy producers are adequate for the effective use of rbST-Zn to increase milk yield and productivity with no unmanageable adverse effects on cow health or welfare.