Polarimetry is a powerful technique for detecting directly the starlight that is scattered in a planetary atmosphere and, thus, possesses information on its geometry, chemistry, and thermodynamics. Recently, we have started a polarimetric survey of nearby planetary systems with hot Jupiters closely orbiting their host stars using the DiPol polarimeter at the KVA telescope and the TurPol polarimeter at the Nordic Optical Telescope, La Palma. Here we present our first results and discuss orbital parameters of the HD 189733 system and scattering properties of its planet.

Context. The solar surface magnetic field is connected with and even controls most of the solar activity phenomena. Zeeman effect diagnostics allow for measuring only a small fraction of the fractal-like structured magnetic field. The remaining hidden magnetic fields can only be accessed with the Hanle effect.Aims. Molecular lines are very convenient for applying the Hanle effect diagnostics thanks to the broad range of magnetic sensitivities in a narrow spectral region. With the UV version of the Zurich Imaging Polarimeter ZIMPOL II installed at the 45 cm telescope of the Istituto Ricerche Solari Locarno (IRSOL), we simultaneously observed intensity and linear polarization center-to-limb variations in two spectral regions containing the (0, 0) and (1, 1) bandheads of the CN B-2 Sigma-X-2 Sigma system. Here we present an analysis of these observations.Methods. We have implemented coherent scattering in molecular lines into an NLTE radiative transfer code. A two-step approach was used. First, we separately solved the statistical equilibrium equations and compute opacities and intensity while neglecting polarization. Then we used these quantities as input for calculating scattering polarization and the Hanle effect.Results. We have found that it is impossible to fit the intensity and polarization simultaneously at different limb angles in the framework of standard 1D modeling. The atmosphere models that provide correct intensity center-to-limb variations fail to fit linear polarization center-to-limb variations due to lacking radiation-field anisotropy. We had to increase the anisotropy by means of a specially introduced free parameter. This allows us to successfully interpret our observations. We discuss possible reasons for underestimating the anisotropy in the 1D modeling.

We report first multicolor polarimetric measurements (UBV bands) for the hot Jupiters HD189733b and confirm our previously reported detection of polarization in the B band (Berdyugina et al. 2008). The wavelength dependence of polarization indicates the dominance of Rayleigh scattering with a peak in the blue B and U bands of ~10^-4+/-10^-5 and at least a factor of two lower signal in the V band. The Rayleigh-like wavelength dependence, detected also in the transmitted light during transits, implies a rapid decrease of the polarization signal toward longer wavelengths. Therefore, the nondetection by Wiktorowicz (2009), based on a measurement integrated within a broad passband covering the V band and partly B and R bands, is inconclusive and consistent with our detection in B. We discuss possible sources of the polarization and demonstrate that effects of incomplete cancellation of stellar limb polarization due to starspots or tidal perturbations are negligible as compared to scattering polarization in the planetary atmosphere. We compare the observations with a Rayleigh-Lambert model and determine effective radii and geometrical albedos for different wavelengths. We find a close similarity of the wavelength dependent geometrical albedo with that of the Neptune atmosphere, which is known to be strongly influenced by Rayleigh and Raman scattering. Our result establishes polarimetry as a reliable means for directly studying exoplanetary atmospheres.

Sunspots are prominent manifestations of the solar cycle and provide key constraints for understanding its operation. Also, knowing the internal structure of sunspots allows us to gain insights on the energy transport in strong magnetic fields and, thus, on the processes inside the convection zone, where solar magnetic fields are generated and amplified before emerging at the surface on various scales, even during solar minima. In this paper, we present results of a. spectropolarimetric analysis of a sunspot observed during the declining phase of solar cycle 23. By inversion of the full Stokes spectra, observed in several spectral regions in the optical at the THEM'S facility, we infer the height dependence of physical quantities such as the temperature and the magnetic field strength for different sunspot regions. The simultaneous use of atomic (Fe 1 5250.2 and 5250.6 angstrom) and highly temperature-sensitive molecular (TiO 7055 angstrom and MgH 5200 angstrom) lines allows us to improve a model of the sunspot umbra.

Polarimetry of extrasolar planets becomes a new tool for their investigation, which requires the development of diagnostic techniques and parameter case studies. Our goal is to develop a theoretical model which can be applied to interpret polarimetric observations of extrasolar planets. Here we present a theoretical parameter study that shows the influence of the various involved parameters on the polarization curves. Furthermore, we investigate the robustness of the fitting procedure. We employ the physics of Rayleigh scattering to obtain polarization curves of an unresolved extrasolar planet. Calculations are made for two cases: (i) assuming an angular distribution for the intensity of the scattered light as from a Lambert sphere and for polarization as from a Rayleigh-type scatterer, and (ii) assuming that both the intensity and polarization of the scattered light are distributed according to the Rayleigh law. We show that the difference between these two cases is negligible for the shapes of the polarization curves. In addition, we take the size of the host star into account, which is relevant for hot Jupiters orbiting giant stars.

Context Spectroscopy data in general often deals with an entanglement of spectral line properties, especially in the case of blended line profiles, independently of how high the quality of the data may be. In stellar spectroscopy and spectropolarimetry, where atomic transition parameters are usually known, the use of multi-line techniques to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of observations has become common practice. These methods extract an average line profile by means of either least squares deconvolution (LSD) or principle component analysis (PCA). However, only a few methods account for the blending of line profiles, and when they do, they assume that line profiles add linearly. Aims. We abandon the simplification of linear line-adding for Stokes I and present a novel approach that accounts for the nonlinearity in blended profiles, also illuminating the process of a reasonable deconvolution of a spectrum. Only the combination of those two enables us to treat spectral line variables independently, constituting our method of nonlinear deconvolution with deblending (NDD). The improved interpretation of a common line profile achieved compensates for the additional expense in calculation time, especially when it comes to the application to (Zeeman) doppler imaging (ZDI). Methods. By examining how absorption lines of different depths blend with each other and describing the effects of line-adding in a mathematically simple, yet physically meaningful way, we discover how it is possible to express a total line depth in terms of a (nonlinear) combination of contributing individual components. Thus, we disentangle blended line profiles and underlying parameters in a truthful manner and strongly increase the reliability of the common line patterns retrieved. Results. By comparing different versions of LSD with our NDD technique applied to simulated atomic and molecular intensity spectra, we are able to illustrate the improvements provided by our method to the interpretation of the recovered mean line profiles. As a consequence, it is possible for the first time to retrieve an intrinsic line pattern from a molecular band, offering the opportunity to fully include them in a NDD-based ZDI. However, we also show that strong line broadening deters the existence of a unique solution for heavily blended lines such as in molecular bandheads.

Context. Spectroscopy data in general often deals with an entanglement of spectral line properties, especially in the case of blended line profiles, independently of how high the quality of the data may be. In stellar spectroscopy and spectropolarimetry, where atomic transition parameters are usually known, the use of multi-line techniques to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of observations has become common practice. These methods extract an average line profile by means of either least squares deconvolution (LSD) or principle component analysis (PCA). However, only a few methods account for the blending of line profiles, and when they do, they assume that line profiles add linearly. Aims. We abandon the simplification of linear line-adding for Stokes I and present a novel approach that accounts for the nonlinearity in blended profiles, also illuminating the process of a reasonable deconvolution of a spectrum. Only the combination of those two enables us to treat spectral line variables independently, constituting our method of nonlinear deconvolution with deblending (NDD). The improved interpretation of a common line profile achieved compensates for the additional expense in calculation time, especially when it comes to the application to (Zeeman) doppler imaging (ZDI). Methods. By examining how absorption lines of different depths blend with each other and describing the effects of line-adding in a mathematically simple, yet physically meaningful way, we discover how it is possible to express a total line depth in terms of a (nonlinear) combination of contributing individual components. Thus, we disentangle blended line profiles and underlying parameters in a truthful manner and strongly increase the reliability of the common line patterns retrieved. Results. By comparing different versions of LSD with our NDD technique applied to simulated atomic and molecular intensity spectra, we are able to illustrate the improvements provided by our method to the interpretation of the recovered mean line profiles. As a consequence, it is possible for the first time to retrieve an intrinsic line pattern from a molecular band, offering the opportunity to fully include them in a NDD-based ZDI. However, we also show that strong line broadening deters the existence of a unique solution for heavily blended lines such as in molecular bandheads.

Weak entangled magnetic fields with mixed polarity occupy the main part of the quiet solar photosphere. While the Zeeman effect diagnostics fail to measure such fields due to cancellation in polarization, the Hanle effect, accessible through the second solar spectrum, provides us with a very sensitive tool for studying the distribution of weak magnetic fields on the Sun. Molecular lines are valuable for magnetic field diagnostics thanks to their broad range of magnetic sensitivities within narrow spectral regions, so that the differential Hanle effect can be employed, which greatly reduces the model dependence of deduced magnetic field strengths. Here we present our recent results on the diagnostic of solar turbulent magnetic fields with the help of CN transitions in the violet system. In addition, we have implemented modeling of coherent scattering in molecular lines into a non-LTE radiative transfer code. Together with the Hanle effect; theory this provides us with a realistic model for studying turbulent magnetic fields.

Transitions of the FeH molecule are dominating features in the near-infrared spectra of sunspots, starspots and red and brown dwarfs. Their remarkable magnetic sensitivity provides an excellent opportunity to study magnetic fields in these cool objects. However, the absence of an adequate theoretical model of the molecule capable to reproduce its observed magnetic properties limits the usage of these transitions in solar and stellar magnetic studies. Here we present the first successful semi-empirical model of the FeH F-4 Delta - X-4 Delta system based on the Hamiltonian for the intermediate Hund's case (a-b) and a perturbation from a nearby electronic state, resulting in modification of the spin-orbit and spin-spin coupling. Our model is able to reproduce the broadening of FeH lines due to the Zeeman effect and their polarization signatures detected in sunspots and starspots and, for the first time, provides reliable Lande factors. This opens a, door for developing further applications for red and brown dwarfs.

We have developed a new code for Zeeman-Doppler Imaging (ZDI) of stellar magnetic fields using the Occamian approach for solving inverse problems. The inversions are applied to Stokes I and V parameter sets obtained by solving the full set of polarized radiative transfer equations for both atomic and molecular lines. For the first time we demonstrate that molecular polarization strongly constrains the ZDI maps and is crucial for obtaining a realistic solution from Stokes I and V only observed at a few stellar rotational phases. We also present an enhanced LSD technique, which allows analytic separation of blended line profiles. The resulting LSD profiles are free from systematic effects induced by blends, which are typical for other multi-line techniques.

Context. Lines of diatomic molecules are ideal tools for studying cool stellar atmospheres and the internal structure of sunspots and starspots, given their temperature and pressure sensitivities, which are typically higher than in atomic lines. The Wing-Ford FeH F(4)Delta-X(4)Delta. system represents such a diatomic molecule that is, in addition, highly sensitive to magnetic fields. The current theoretical description of those transitions that include the involved molecular constants, however, are only based on intensity measurements because polarimetric observations have not been available until now, which limits their diagnostic value. Furthermore, the theory has so far been optimized to reproduce energy levels and line strengths without taking magnetic sensitivities into account.Aims. The FeH F(4)Delta-X(4)Delta. system is produced by transitions between two electronic states with the coupling of the angular momenta that is intermediate between limiting Hund's cases ( a) and ( b). Our goal is to investigate the diagnostic capabilities of the current theoretical description of the molecule FeH.Methods. Using the most precise available Hamiltonian, we carried out the perturbation calculation of the molecular Zeeman effect for this transition and computed the Lande factors of the energy levels and of transitions. We extracted Lande factors from a comparison of observed and calculated Stokes I and V profiles. Certain spectral lines, most frequently with high magnetic sensitivity, exhibited discrepancies between the theory and observations. We extended the theoretical model with a semi-empirical approach to obtain a diagnostic tool that is able to reproduce many of the interesting spectral lines.Results. We find that the current theory successfully reproduces the magnetic properties of a large number of lines in the FeH F(4)Delta-X(4)Delta system and that the modified Hamiltonian allows us to synthesize and successfully reproduce the most sensitive lines. Thus, our observations have provided valuable constraints for determining empirical molecular constants and Lande factors.Conclusions. The FeH F(4)Delta-X(4)Delta system is found to be a very sensitive magnetic diagnostic tool. Polarimetric data of these lines, in contrast to intensity measurements, provide us with more direct and detailed information to study the coolest parts of sunspot and starspot umbrae, as well as cool active dwarfs.

We report the first direct detection of an exoplanet in the visible polarized light. The transiting planet HD 189733b is one of the very hot Jupiters with shortest periods and, thus, smallest orbits, which makes them ideal candidates for polarimetric detections. We obtained polarimetric measurements of HD 189733 in the B band well distributed over the orbital period and detected two polarization maxima near planetary elongations with a peak amplitude of similar to 2 x 10(-4). Assuming Rayleigh scattering, we estimated the effective size of the scattering atmo atmosphere ( Lambert sphere) to be 1.5 +/- 0.2 R-J, which is 30% larger than the radius of the opaque body previously inferred from transits. If the scattering matter fills the planetary Roche lobe, the lower limit of the geometrical albedo can be estimated as 0.14. The phase dependence of polarization indicates that the planetary orbit is oriented almost in a north-south direction with a longitude of ascending node Omega = (16 degrees or 196 degrees) +/- 8 degrees. We obtain independent estimates of the orbit inclination i = 98 degrees +/- 8 degrees and eccentricity e = 0.0 ( with an uncertainty of 0.05), which are in excellent agreement with values determined previously from transits and radial velocities. Our findings clearly demonstrate the power of polarimetry and open a new dimension in exploring exoplanetary atmospheres even for systems without transits.

Here we report on the first detection of circular polarization in molecular lines formed in cool magnetic regions (starspots) and in chromospheric emission lines formed in hot plages on the surfaces of active stars. Our survey of G-K-M stars included young main-sequence dwarfs and RS CVn-type giants and subgiants. All stars were found to possess surface magnetic fields producing Stokes V LSD signals in atomic lines of 0.05% to 0.5%. Several stars clearly showed circular polarization in molecular lines of 0.1% to 1%. The molecular Stokes V signal is reminiscent of that observed in sunspots. Chromospheric magnetic fields were detected on most active targets in Stokes V profiles of emission lines with peak polarization up to 2%. The observed molecular circular polarization on M dwarfs indicates single-polarity magnetic fields covering at least 10% of the stellar disk. Smaller signals on K stars imply that their magnetic fields are apparently weaker, more entangled than on M dwarfs, or more diluted by the bright photosphere.

Context. Weak entangled magnetic fields with mixed polarity occupy the main part of the quiet Sun. The Zeeman effect diagnostics fails to measure such fields because of cancellation in circular polarization. However, the Hanle effect diagnostics, accessible through the second solar spectrum, provides us with a very sensitive tool for studying the distribution of weak magnetic fields on the Sun.Aims. Molecular lines are very strong and even dominate in some regions of the second solar spectrum. The CN B-2 Sigma- X-2 Sigma system is one of the richest and most promising systems for molecular diagnostics and well suited for the application of the differential Hanle effect method. The aim is to interpret observations of the CN B-2 Sigma - X2S system using the Hanle effect and to obtain an estimation of the magnetic field strength.Methods. We assume that the CN molecular layer is situated above the region where the continuum radiation is formed and employ the single-scattering approximation. Together with the Hanle effect theory this provides us with a model that can diagnose turbulent magnetic fields.Results. We have succeeded in fitting modeled CN lines in several regions of the second solar spectrum to observations and obtained a magnetic field strength in the range from 10 - 30 G in the upper solar photosphere depending on the considered lines.

Lines of diatomic molecules are more temperature and pressure sensitive than atomic lines, which makes them ideal tools for studying cool stellar atmospheres an internal structure of sunspots and starspots. The FeH F^4 Delta-X^4 Delta system represents such an example that exhibits in addition a large magnetic field sensitivity. The current theoretical descriptions of these transitions including the molecular constants involved are only based on intensity measurements because polarimetric observations have not been available so far, which limits their diagnostic value. We present for the first time spectropolarimetric observations of the FeH F^4 Delta-X^4 Delta system measured in sunspots to investigate their diagnostic capabilities for probing solar and stellar magnetic fields. We investigate whether the current theoretical model of FeH can reproduce the observed Stokes profiles including their magnetic properties. The polarimetric observations are compared with synthetic Stokes profiles modeled with radiative transfer calculations. This allows us to infer the temperature and the magnetic field strength of the observed sunspots. We find that the current theory successfully reproduces the magnetic properties of a large number of lines in the FeH F^4 Delta-X^4 Delta system. In a few cases the observations indicate a larger Zeeman splitting than predicted by the theory. There, our observations have provided additional constraints, which allowed us to determine empirical molecular constants. The FeH F^4 Delta-X^4 Delta system is found to be a very sensitive magnetic diagnostic tool. Polarimetric data of these lines provide us with more direct information to study the coolest parts of astrophysical objects.

Context. The second solar spectrum resulting from coherent scattering is a main tool for diagnostics of turbulent magnetic fields on the Sun. Scattering on diatomic molecules plays an important role in forming this spectrum and even dominates in some spectral regions.Aims. In a magnetic field electronic states of a molecule are often perturbed via the Paschen-Back effect. Sometimes this perturbation can completely change the spectrum, not only quantitatively, but even qualitatively. Here we calculate molecular scattering properties taking into account the Paschen-Back effect.Methods. Starting with the Hund's case (a) wave functions as a basis we obtain with the perturbation theory wave functions of the intermediate Hund's case (a-b) in a magnetic field. Using new, perturbed values of the Lande factors and transition amplitudes we calculate the Mueller matrix for coherent scattering at diatomic molecules in the intermediate Hund's case (a-b) and look for the effects that can be caused by the Paschen-Back effect.Results. We have found a considerable deviation from the Zeeman regime and discuss here the quantitative and qualitative effects on observed polarization signals for the CN B-2 Sigma-X-2 Sigma and MgH B'(2)Sigma-X-2 Sigma systems as examples.

We performed with THEMIS spectro-polarimetric observations simultaneously in various atomic and molecular lines. We present the observations and discuss an important aspect of spectro-polarimetric data reduction: the recentering of the frames in the spectral direction needed before substracting spectra to extract polarized Stokes parameters. We conclude that THEMIS has the unique capability, among present time large solar telescope, of providing polarization data almost free from instrumental effects.