Trump's re-election reshaped US geopolitics and trade policy, with significant implications for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), particularly from state-driven economies like China. Understanding how Chinese policy shapes FDI in geopolitically sensitive regions like Africa is crucial. This paper examines the interplay between traditional FDI motivations and policy influences driving FDI presence or absence in Africa. Adopting configurational theorising, we employ longitudinal, panel fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) across 46 African countries from 2012 to 2018. We find that policy/ political influences are integral to Chinese-FDI motivations. They consistently enable, accommodate, and complement traditional FDI motivations, reducing Multinational Enterprises (MNEs)’ risks and entry barriers, while fostering China’s long-term control over critical markets and resources. For Chinese-FDI combinations of motivations (pathways) drive FDI. The changes in pathways’ strength and geographical coverage are shaped by the presence of political influence and potentially reflect shifts in Chinese political priorities. We contribute to internalisation theory and OLI, by integrating policy/political drivers into location advantages to explain FDI-motivations. We showcase how Chinese MNEs utilise their ownership advantages to exploit non-market and institutional imperfections, creating internationally transferable location advantages. This supports Chinese MNEs and implements Chinese policy. The longitudinal fsQCA approach to analyse complex, evolving FDI motivations provides new insights into Chinese FDI in Africa. By addressing the nuanced role of economic diplomacy and the Chinese competitive state system, we offer practical implications for policymakers and managers aiming to attract and equitably manage Chinese-FDI, and to predict the future FDI location decisions of China to proactively manage their economic and geopolitical implications.

There is currently renewed policy focus on ‘levelling-up’ economic performance across Great Britain’s regions and nations. Heterogeneous historical regional economic experiences lead to questions over the need for policy differences and trade-offs, and roles of regional, versus national level, policies in the longer term. This paper examines, using panel fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), combinations of education and human capital, entrepreneurship, and economic activity conditions driving economic development differences across local authorities in Great Britain. Analysis identifies three and six condition-based pathways for the presence and absence of high local economic development (LED), respectively, absence pathways having a particular geographical focus. This identifies different sets of regions, where disadvantage is ‘deep-rooted’ (and non-traditional policymaking is needed), advantage is long-established, or where policy is most likely to make a positive difference. It also identifies a need to tailor policy according to the pathway(s), rather than assuming homogeneous approaches are appropriate. Finally, exemplar regions offer case studies of how future policy can assist movement from absence to presence of high LED.

This study uses a novel application of panel fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) in the international management field. utilizing a unique database capturing reasons for foreign direct investment (FDI), and state-level location, we explain location decisions of high-technology South Korean (henceforth Korean) multinational enterprises (MNEs), when first entering the United States of America (henceforth US), from 1995 until the 2008 financial crisis. Various home country conditions, combined with a desire for technological upgrading, encouraged firms to seek locational advantages. Additionally, rather than assuming FDI to be driven by a single purpose over time, the addition of regional characteristics allows a typology of reasons for Korean FDI to be developed. We show evolving Korean FDI trends in the US with home country and regional perspectives interacting to attract FDI into US states with different characteristics, arguing this is consistent with US policy seeking to attract inward investment to foster economic development.

This study offers a novel country-level longitudinal investigation of conditions, including, income, urbanity, education, R&D, and entrepreneurial activity, driving international trade, for imports and exports. The configurational (clustering) approach places emphasis on country and year groupings, offering ‘targeted’ understanding on country level variations of international trade in cultural goods. The study explores context sensitive conditions affecting international trade in cultural goods, including environment for entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurial processes. Emphasis is given to configurational considerations of clusters of country-year observations based on conditions. Inferences inferred will be country groups-based perspectives. Using UIS and GEM datasets, fuzzy c-means clustering is employed for economic development-related conditions measuring, income, urbanity, education, R&D, and entrepreneurial activity, to establish clusters of country-year observations, based on differences in the condition values describing them. These clusters are defined to give qualitative understanding of their individuality. Validation of clusters is undertaken with consideration of differences on levels of international trade of cultural goods, in terms of forms of imports and exports. To complement the validation, cluster profiling is undertaken, with consideration of population age and poverty levels. The study contributes increased understanding concerning drivers (conditions) of trade in cultural goods, and impact of entrepreneurship in both imports and exports.

Trade secrets are key assets for innovative, successful companies. Compared to other intellectual property, trade secrets require different approaches to protect and embed them into company innovation strategies. Previous literature has not, however, provided a comprehensive evaluation of the strategic approaches toward trade secrets. This article benefits from a systematic literature review method to examine trade secrecy approaches with a theoretical lens using both dynamic capabilities and resource-based view approaches. Fifty articles are carefully selected and examined to build a “strategic directions and approaches” framework for companies to protect and benefit from their trade secrets. This study therefore offers both academic and practical values by identifying a dynamic, structured view of available trade secrecy approaches, the foundations for a unified trade secrecy framework, and a future research agenda.

This study conceptualizes graduate entrepreneurship as a spatial phenomenon. Specifically, we explore how combinations of university-related (knowledge exchange intensity and entrepreneurship support) as well as regional conditions (economic prosperity and entrepreneurial culture) might explain the presence or absence of high graduate entrepreneurship as possible (or likely) explanations based on a configurational approach. We applied fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to a dataset using HE-BCIS (Higher Education-Business Community Interaction Survey) survey and the UK's ONS (Office for National Statistics) data for England covering a five-year period, combined with map-based analysis to identify distinct pathways that explain the presence or absence of graduate entrepreneurship across different regions. Findings demonstrate that university-related and regional conditions can complement each other in different ways to explain high levels of graduate entrepreneurship, but absence of one can also suppress the effect of the other, resulting in the absence of high graduate entrepreneurship.

Taking an evolutionary economic geography perspective, we build on literature on innovation modes, the aim of this study being to explain variations in SME innovation performance across European regions over time. Drawing on five waves of data from the EU Regional Innovation Scoreboard between 2011 and 2019, our sample includes 221 regions across 27 EU Member States, as well as Norway, UK, Serbia, and Switzerland. We apply nascent panel fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis to explore how different combinations of SME innovation modes explain innovation performance across different EU regions (i.e. geographical scope) as well as within different EU regions over time (i.e. temporal stability). Findings show that whether DUI or STI modes are more effective in the context of SMEs crucially depends on the timeframe considered, but also the geographical location of SMEs. The study offers novel insights into the diverse and complex nature through which regional innovation evolves over time, advancing understanding on regionalization as well as temporality of SME innovation modes in Europe. It also provides an important basis for discussing innovation policy across Europe.

The Welsh manufacturing sector has undergone significant change over the last decade, with new technologies, greater promotion of the circular economy by policymakers, and a competitive environment affected by Brexit, covid and energy price rises, all impacting the business landscape. Consequently, Welsh manufacturing businesses, the vast majority of which are micro, small, or medium-sized enterprises, face issues concerning supply chains, training and skills, innovation, finance, infrastructure, and sustainability. This report summarises a recent study conducted by Swansea University, on behalf of the Federation of Small Businesses (Pickernell et al 2023). The research investigated the issues faced by Welsh small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and identified short-term problems with energy and infrastructure, and difficulties recruiting sufficient qualified staff, as well as a lack of Welsh-based suppliers for many of the resources Welsh SMEs required. The research also highlighted the gap between short-term pressures and long-term vision, but that bridging that gap would allow Welsh manufacturing businesses to place themselves on a more resilient footing, build skills and employment and prepare for future opportunities.

Previous research has emphasised the importance of examining institutional influences on FDI attractiveness. There is, however, relatively limited, conflicting, research exploring the relationship between informal institutional effects, such as level of corruption, and FDI motivation. Addressing this gap, we adopt a configurational fsQCA-based approach to link informal institutional influences to FDI motivation driving the presence or absence of FDI flows. Conceptualising corruption as bribery and unfair business practices, we extend our understanding of informal institutional quality impact on FDI inflows. Results reveal that informal institutional effects on FDI vary across regions, with several pathways explaining the presence or absence of FDI, according to the presence or absence of corruption. We add to previous studies by identifying the conditions that, when combined with corruption, are linked to the presence or absence of FDI. Results also indicate that whilst corruption appears unimportant in preventing FDI, and is of only secondary importance in driving FDI, it appears to have importance in determining the type of MNEs’ undertaking FDI. Overall, corruption is likely determining which companies invest in a country, rather than if, traditional reasons for FDI, particularly Resource and Market seeking, being key, with strategic and efficiency-seeking also being of secondary importance.

Using fsQCA, this study explores how venture strategy, as well as founding team knowledge diversity and demographic diversity interact to explain revenue growth of new ventures. Based on a longitudinal dataset containing 210 new ventures, we find that the effects of team diversity are complex such that different diversity conditions explain short-term (i.e. one year) compared to sustained growth (i.e. over three years) and that their role is contingent on the venture’s strategy. We identify three recipes that explain revenue growth in the short-term and four recipes that explain revenue growth in the longer-term. One recipe is the same for both time periods pointing towards the potential role of imprinting of certain team diversity conditions in combination with an innovation strategy. Our findings provide a nuanced and in-depth picture of the relative relevance of an innovation strategy, knowledge diversity, and demographic diversity at distinct stages of venture founding.

Innovation is a component of economic development, with an emphasis on entrepreneurship and small business activity. This longitudinal study evaluates innovation readiness drivers across European regions. The following research questions are posed: What are the sets of innovation drivers in Europe? What is their relative importance? How do they differ between regions over time? The study uses principal component analysis (PCA) and the constellation graph index approach. Three principal component drivers of innovation are identified: innovation system, absorptive capacity, and IP protection. The aggregation of component details reveals an innovation readiness dimension for each European region in a specific year. Variations in results for different years are discussed. The study covers a large number of countries. Innovation readiness across regions is examined. The results show that constituent innovation driver variables contribute to performance over time. Different patterns are revealed for high and low innovation regions. The relationships between innovation drivers are evaluated.

Purpose - While previous research has identified that environmental innovation is shaped by a variety of drivers, researchers have devoted limited attention to the role of nature-based resources in the country. Building on environmental innovation theory and the natural resource-based view of the firm, this study introduces ecological resource deficits as a novel driver of environmental innovation. The authors explore how ecological resource deficits interact with institutional and regulatory drivers as well as firm-level technology drivers to explain the extent of environmental innovation across different countries. Design/methodology/approach - The authors apply fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis to a multi-source dataset to identify different pathways for environmental innovation across 28 countries. Findings - Findings show that higher environmental innovation is a function of ecological resource deficits complemented by the presence of at least two other conditions. Moreover, the results show that environmental policy stringency and societal expectations are substitute conditions of environmental innovation. Originality/value - This study reveals the interdependences between different conditions for environmental innovation across countries contributing to a more nuanced understanding of the geography of environmental innovation.

This research explores the underlying roles of effectuation and causation logic as they impact upon firm resilience in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in the unprecedented disruption caused by Covid-19. Because Covid-19 provides a unique and powerful discontinuance to internal and external environments, it requires firm adaptation in a wide variety of areas, as they seek to find a new “normal”. Our study contributes to the literature by applying effectuation to understand how an SME can experiment and learn in the face of disruption, and then subsequently causally adapt their resources and networks to achieve resilient outcomes. It adds to knowledge about the interaction between effectual and causal logic, leading to a more nuanced explanation of how and why an SME might apply each logic when responding to disruption caused by Covid-19.

The chapters in this book have drawn together issues affecting disadvantaged entrepreneurs as they struggle to access, interact with, and benefit from the traditional entrepreneurial ecosystem (EE). The findings highlight the importance of their motives for entrepreneurial activity, their resources, and how access to these are affected by issues such as gender and migrant status. In addition, substitutes for and complements to more traditional EEs have also been identified, including incubators, civil society organisations, and social enterprises, demonstrating the importance of alternative EEs often left unexplored in mainstream literature. The authors conclude that future research could usefully further explore background contexts driving disadvantaged groups towards entrepreneurial activity and the existing theory surrounding this. Particularly relevant for future research is the role of human capital, intersectional factors such as gender, migrant status, location, and roles of activities. Future research into stakeholders that can substitute for elements of the traditional EE is also important. Understanding this will assist disadvantaged entrepreneurs to both develop the absorptive capacity to create and develop their own businesses and potentially begin to access parts of the formal EE.

In recent years, entrepreneurs have increasingly turned to crowdfunding, a new form of entrepreneurial finance, to fund projects. Whilst research has shown that signals originating from the entrepreneur and project can affect the outcome of crowdfunding, how different signals work together under different signalling environments remains underexplored. Drawing on signalling theory, we examine how signals of entrepreneurs’ credibility (success, failure, backer and industry experience) and project quality (preparedness and third-party endorsements) produce crowdfunding success in different signalling environments. We collected a unique dataset with matched projects listed on both Kickstarter and Indiegogo, but with different funding models, to represent two distinct signalling environments. Results based on qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) identify two distinct signalling patterns that show entrepreneur’s credibility and project quality signals can complement each other to produce crowdfunding success. In an environment with less uncertainty, entrepreneur’s credibility in terms of crowdfunding experience can also compensate absent project quality to produce crowdfunding success. In an environment with higher uncertainty, entrepreneur’s credibility and project quality need to be both present to establish the necessary legitimacy for crowdfunding to be successful. Furthermore, by integrating positive (i.e. success) and negative (i.e. failure) signals, we demonstrate how signal incongruence can enhance crowdfunding success. Plain English Summary Failure experience is an important signal in achieving crowdfunding success, but its effectiveness depends on other signals as well as the signalling environment. Our study shows how crowdfunding success can be achieved in multiple ways and that the path to success depends on the funding model of the platform used. For entrepreneurs to demonstrate credibility, backer experience and project preparedness are important. Both are under the control of the entrepreneur and well worth considering investing effort into. Importantly, the study also shows that demonstrating failure experience is important in achieving crowdfunding success. Failure experience can either replace the lack of prior success experience by demonstrating a track record of learning or it can enhance prior success experience by producing a more realistic picture of the entrepreneurs. Thus, the study offers practical implications for entrepreneurs on how to use different signals to increase the likelihood of success in reward-based crowdfunding.

Using a 2019 data set, 236 regions across 26 European countries are investigated, focusing on four, interlinked, conditions of potential relevance to SME innovation, specifically measures focused on levels of human capital, internal firm innovation, innovation collaborations and broader knowledge collaborations between public and private sectors. The methodology applied uses a configurational approach to elucidate relationships, specifically fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to evaluate how these conditions affect sales of new-to-market and new-to-firm innovations as a percentage of total turnover for SMEs in each region against the EU 2019 average (NMFS). In addition to existence of the classic 'core' region 'innovation ecosystem' recipe, having presence of three of the four conditions (in-house innovation being non-relevant), analysis reveals innovation policy may require specific tailoring in certain types of regions. This suggests greater collaboration is required to overcome more extensive absence of other parts of the Regional Innovation System, in-house innovation required to overcome lack of education alone. The main contributions of the research are to generate a more comprehensive evaluation of the complexity of innovation at the regional level, graphical 'map' based elucidation of findings also contributing to establishing a baseline for future analysis for European regions' SME-innovation performance.