Erupted front deciduous teeth are often resected in pig farms to limit lesions that intact teeth may inflict to other piglets or the sow's udder. Two techniques are commonly used: clipping with pliers and grinding with a rotating grindstone. Both techniques are potential sources of pain and stress. We analysed piglet behaviour just before and after tooth resection to identify changes that could indicate pain or distress. Behavioural observations focussed on oral behaviours, locomotion, ear position and movements, and vocalisations. In total, 120 piglets from 20 litters were allocated to clipping with sterilised pliers (CLIP), grinding with a hand-held rotative grindstone (GRIND) or SHAM-grinding at 1-4 days after birth (40 piglets/treatment, 2 piglets/treatment/litter). SHAM piglets were handled and treated as those in the GRIND group with a protective covering on the grinder head to prevent tissue damage. For resected piglets, the tip of the canines and third incisors was removed. Each litter was separated from the dam and placed in a heated holding trolley. Selected piglets were taken individually to a separate room and placed in an observation box for 1 min to be video recorded. Thereafter, tooth treatment was applied by a trained handler, and resected teeth were measured and checked for the presence of blood. The piglet was returned to the observation box and video recorded again for 1 min. Once all selected piglets had been treated, the litter was returned to the dam. Mean treatment duration was 53, 48 and 46 s in the SHAM, GRIND and CLIP groups, respectively. Presence of blood on teeth after resection was significantly more frequent (P < 0.001) in CLIP (97.5%) than GRIND (22.5%) treated piglets. Only one behaviour, 'champing' (opening and closing an empty mouth) differed (P = 0.005) between treatments: occurring in 45% of SHAM and 80% of CLIP pigs (P < 0.05) with GRIND pigs being intermediate (60%). This behaviour was never observed pre-treatment. A marked influence of handling on piglet behaviour regardless of the treatment was evident: walking, exploring walls and ears back decreased, while immobility, not exploring, ears in front position, and head flicks increased significantly (P < 0.05) between the pre- and post-treatment periods, but were not affected by treatment. In conclusion, although handling stress masked some of the behavioural effects of acute pain, tooth clipping appears to be more detrimental than grinding, as it led to more frequent presence of blood and champing behaviour.

The physiological, psychological and behavioural traits of tail biting/bitten pigs have been widely studied, with most research focusing on identifying traits to predict tail biting phenotypes (biters, victims, or uninvolved ‘neutrals’). However, it is not clear if these traits persist once pigs are no longer involved in performing or receiving tail bites. This study investigated whether there was a difference in behavioural responses to a novel object test (NOT) between pigs which were tail biting performers (BITER), recipients (VICTIM), or not involved in the biting events (NEUTRAL). We then investigated whether these differences in responses were still evident six weeks later, when tail biting was less prevalent. We hypothesised that biters would exhibit more behaviours indicative of boldness, but also stress, than victims or neutrals, and that these differences would still be present later. A total of 120 undocked pigs (BITER, n = 48; VICTIM, N = 48; NEUTRAL, n = 24; 60 male, 60 female) were selected for testing. At the time of the first test (one week after pigs were moved into the finisher house at 12 weeks of age; T1), the prevalence of tail biting peaked. The same test was repeated six weeks later (T2) when biting had eased. Each pig was tested separately in a novel arena. After a minute of habituation, a brush head was introduced by dropping it down from above, at which point the 5 min test began. A saliva sample was taken immediately before the habituation (baseline) and after each test to evaluate cortisol concentration. Direct continuous behaviour observation was conducted. Overall, salivary cortisol concentrations were higher after than before the NOT ( P < 0.001), although VICTIM pigs had a reduced elevation in cortisol after the test ( P = 0.02) compared to BITER and NEUTRAL pigs in T2. Between phenotypes, baseline saliva cortisol concentrations were similar. BITER pigs approached the object quicker than VICTIM pigs (P = 0.01), but also had more high-pitched vocalisations (P < 0.01), but these differences observed in T1 were no longer present in T2. The results suggested that the NOT was sensitive to detect different levels of behavioural response; however, differences in BITER pigs’ behavioural responses were transient and did not persist once biting behaviour ceased. The long-term consequence of chronic stress caused by being tail bitten was manifested in VICTIM pigs’ blunted cortisol elevation six weeks later, after severe tail biting events.

The immune system can influence social motivation with potentially dire consequences for group-housed production animals, such as pigs. The aim of this study was to test the effect of a controlled immune activation in group-housed pigs, through an injection with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and an intervention with ketoprofen on centrality parameters at the individual level. In addition, we wanted to test the effect of time relative to the injection on general network parameters in order to get a better understanding of changes in social network structures at the group level. 52 female pigs (11–12 weeks) were allocated to four treatments, comprising two injections: ketoprofen-LPS (KL), ketoprofen-saline (KS), saline-LPS (SL) and saline-saline (SS). Social behaviour with a focus on damaging behaviour was observed continuously in 10 × 15 min bouts between 0800 am and 1700 pm 1 day before (baseline) and two subsequent days after injection. Activity was scan-sampled every 5 min for 6 h after the last injection in the pen. Saliva samples were taken for cortisol analysis at baseline and at 4, 24, 48, 72 h after the injections. A controlled immune activation affected centrality parameters for ear manipulation networks at the individual level. Lipopolysaccharide-injected pigs had a lower in-degree centrality, thus, received less interactions, 2 days after the challenge. Treatment effects on tail manipulation and fighting networks were not observed at the individual level. For networks of manipulation of other body parts, in-degree centrality was positively correlated with cortisol response at 4 h and lying behaviour in the first 6 h after the challenge in LPS-injected pigs. Thus, the stronger the pigs reacted to the LPS, the more interactions they received in the subsequent days. The time in relation to injection affected general network parameters for ear manipulation and fighting networks at the group level. For ear manipulation networks, in-degree centralisation was higher on the days following injection, thus, certain individuals in the pen received more interactions than the rest of the group compared to baseline. For fighting networks, betweenness decreased on the first day after injection compared to baseline, indicating that network connectivity increased after the challenge. Networks of tail manipulation and manipulation of other body parts did not change on the days after injection at the group level. Social network analysis is a method that can potentially provide important insights into the effects of sickness on social behaviour in group-housed pigs.

In this chapter, the authors examine the physiological and behavioural reactions in pigs submitted to tissue damaging procedures. They are grouped in three parts: (1) neural, (2) hormonal and metabolic and (3) behavioural consequences. The chapter focuses on surgical castration, tail docking and tooth resection that are very common in the pig industry.

Background: The walking ability of many broilers is characterised by slight or definite defects categorised as gait scores (GS) 1 and 2. The present study aimed to examine potential relationships between GSs and indicators of body morphology, leg pathology, tibia strength and wooden breast in Ross 308 broilers assessed as GS <= 2. Methods: At 38 days of age, GS and live body weight of 179 birds was recorded. Each bird was examined post-mortem for signs of wooden breast, contact dermatitis and a range of leg pathologies. Weights of different body parts and tibia strength were quantified. Results: Within sex, GS increased with increasing live bodyweight (p = 0.020). There was a tendency for an effect of GS on prevalence of footpad dermatitis (p = 0.086) and dislocated femoral joint cartilage (p = 0.059) where both pathologies increased in frequency with increasing GS. Greater load was required to fracture tibia from GS2 than GS0 birds (p = 0.040). Conclusions: Within this relatively small data set, no strong relationships between GS = 2 and indicators of body morphology, leg pathology, tibia strength and wooden breast in Ross 308 broilers were found, except for the live terminal body weight. Further studies, involving larger data sets are required for full clarification.

Poor health is a risk factor for damaging behaviors, but the mechanisms behind this link are unknown. Injection of pigs with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can be used to model aspects of poor health. Recent studies have shown that LPS-injected pigs perform more tail- and ear-directed behavior compared to saline-injected pigs and suggest that pro-inflammatory cytokines may play a role in these behaviors. The aims of this study were to test the effect of LPS on the social behavior of pigs and the neurotransmitters and modulators in their brains and to test the effect of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug on the effects of LPS. Fifty-two female pigs (11–12 weeks) were allocated to four treatments comprising two injections: saline–saline (SS), saline–LPS (SL), ketoprofen–saline (KS), and ketoprofen–LPS (KL). Activity was scan-sampled every 5 min for 6 h after the last injection in the pen. Social behavior was observed continuously in 10 × 15-min bouts between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m. 1 day before (baseline) and 1 and 2 days after the injection. Saliva was analyzed for cortisol and plasma for tryptophan and kynurenine. The frontal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and brain stem were sampled 72 h after the injection and analyzed for cytokines and monoamines. LPS activated the HPA axis and decreased the activity within 6 h after the injection. Ketoprofen lowered the effect of LPS on cortisol release and attenuated the behavioral signs of sickness in challenged pigs. SL pigs manipulated the ears of their pen mates significantly longer than SS pigs 2 days after the injection. LPS had no observed effect on IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-18. At 72 h after the injection, plasma tryptophan was depleted in SL pigs, and tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations in the frontal cortex and brain stem of SL pigs were significantly lower compared to those in SS pigs. Dopamine concentrations in the hypothalamus of SL pigs were significantly lower compared to those in SS pigs. Serotonin concentrations in the hypothalamus and noradrenaline concentrations in the hippocampus of SL pigs were significantly lower compared to those in KL pigs. In conclusion, LPS influenced the different neurotransmitters and modulators in the brain that are hypothesized to play an important role in the regulation of mood and behavior.

Impaired walking ability in terms of slight or definite defects is more common in broiler production than lameness that obviously hinders movement, but it has received limited scientific attention. This study aimed to compare behavior of conventional broilers with impaired walking ability (assessed as gait score (GS) 2) with those walking normally (GS0) and those with only a slight gait defect (GS1). Behavior in the home environment was registered, and an analgesic intervention to quantify changes in time budgets indicating pain relief was applied. The study included 192 Ross 308 broilers. On day 27 of age, the birds were distributed as evenly as possible into birds of GS0 and GS2 of each sex based on obtained gait score. Following this, each experimental bird was housed with 3 companion birds. On days 30 and 32 of age, the behavior in the home pens was recorded. All experimental birds were injected with the NSAID carprofen on one of the 2 d and saline on the other. The statistical analyses used the GS scored on the day of recording as explanatory factor. Compared to GS0 birds, GS2 birds tended to be more inactive (mean (CI): 4,193 (3,971–4416) vs. 4,005 (3,753–4,257) s; P = 0.074), spent more time sitting while feeding (306 (266–353) vs. 213 (180–251) s; P = 0.026), were less likely to perch (probability: 0.78 (0.69–0.85) vs. 0.91 (0.85–0.95); P = 0.012), and spent less time performing comfort behavior (749 (689–814) s vs. 875 (792–967) s; P = 0.043). Compared to GS1 birds, GS2 birds spent more time inactive (GS1: 4,022 (3,818–4225) s; P = 0.027), less time foraging (289 (253–329) vs. 347 (309–388) s; P = 0.047), and were less likely to perch (GS1: 0.90 (0.86–0.93); P = 0.001). For some of these behavioral variables, administration of carprofen led to behavioral changes across the GSs, which may suggest that the behavioral expression of the broilers was limited by pain. These findings are of relevance to animal welfare, but the underlying causes are still not fully clarified.

Environmental enrichment in pig housing is a legal requirement under current EU legislation, but some recommended loose materials may cause obstructions in fully-slatted systems. Wood is an organic material that could be compatible with slatted systems. This study investigated enrichment use in finishing pigs (three wood species and a rubber floor thy) and explored the relationship between use and damaging behaviours, and physiological and physical measures of stress and injury. Individual variation in enrichment use within pen was also investigated. Pigs (12 weeks old; week 0) were housed in 40 pens of seven pigs (n = 280). One of four different enrichment items (one spruce, larch, or beech wooden post, or rubber floor thy) was randomly assigned to each pen (10 pens/treatment). The behaviour of each individually marked pig was observed continuously from video recordings taken on six different occasions (twice during week 2, 4 and 7; 1 h per occasion). Individual tail/ear lesion and tear staining scores were recorded every 2 weeks. Saliva samples for cortisol analysis were obtained from three focal pigs per pen every 2 weeks. These focal pigs were selected based on the latency to approach the experimenter on the first sampling day and classified as 'Approach', 'Neutral' or 'Avoid'. Carcasses were inspected for tail lesions and potential oral damage. Time spent using enrichment was higher in pigs with spruce and rubber thy than with larch and beech (P < 0.001). Spruce was used up the most quickly and was the softest of the wood species (P < 0.001). High use of spruce was not due to consistent high use by certain pigs. No treatment effect on any other behaviour was recorded, but enrichment use was positively correlated with damaging behaviours at pen level (P < 0.001). Spruce pigs had slightly more severe tail lesion scores than Beech (P < 0.05). Salivary cortisol did not differ between treatments but was higher in 'Avoid' than 'Approach' pigs (P = 0.04). No clear oral damage that could be attributed to using wood was found. By investigating enrichment use at both pen and individual level, a more complete picture was obtained of how pigs used the enrichment. Wood appears to be a safe material to use as environmental enrichment for pigs and a softer wood species was preferred by pigs with equal preference for the rubber floor toy.

During their first days of postnatal life, piglets reared for meat production are often subjected to numerous husbandry practices that cause injury of sensitive tissues and hence are potential sources of pain. The intensity and duration of the pain engendered depend on the nature and magnitude of tissue damage. Each of these practices is carried out for specific reasons, such as preventing boar taint (castration), reducing the risk of tail biting (tail docking), limiting lesions on siblings and the sow's teats (tooth resection), improving health (injections) or identifying animals (ear tagging or notching). This chapter will discuss the rationale and methods used, the evidence of pain during and shortly after the procedure, the long-term pain consequences, the consequences for health and human-animal relationships, the current options for pain mitigation and the pros and cons of avoiding these practices completely. Solutions are emerging to minimise the industry's dependence on these practices and, when still considered necessary, to enable selection of the least painful option and best mitigate any residual pain. A better knowledge of the affective component of the pain involved in the practices as well as the establishment of standard and validated protocols of pain evaluation are needed in order to move forward and determine the best solutions from an animal welfare perspective and feasibility by farmers.

One of the difficulties in complying with the prohibition of routine tail docking is a lack of effective alternative solutions to prevent tail biting, especially in fully slatted systems. This study compared three slat-compatible enrichment replenishment strategies for pigs. Forty-eight mixed-sex pens (six males and six females/pen) of undocked pigs were followed from birth to slaughter. Pre-weaning, half the pigs were provided with enrichment materials (a cardboard cup, rubber toy, hessian cloth and bamboo), in addition to a rope for the sows, in all farrowing crates. Post-weaning, all pens were enriched with eight identical items, including an elevated rack supplied with fresh-cut grass, and objects of wooden, bamboo, rubber, and fabric materials presented in various ways. However, three different replenishment frequencies were applied: “Low” (replenished on Monday/Wednesday/Friday), “Medium” (replenished once daily), and “High” (replenished ad libitum). Individual pigs were weighed on days 0, 49, 91, and 113 post-weaning. Direct behavior observations were conducted twice weekly at pen level (10 min/day/pen), and tail and ear lesion scores of individual pigs were also recorded every other week. These measurements were taken during the post-weaning period. The cost of all enrichment materials used was calculated. Pre-weaning enrichment only contributed to a lower ear lesion score (P = 0.04). No difference in lesion scores was found between post-weaning treatments. “Low” replenishment rate pigs performed more damaging behaviors (tail/ear biting, belly-nosing, mounting, other biting, and aggressive behaviors combined) than “High” and “Medium” pigs (P < 0.01). The average daily gain in the finishing stage was higher in “High” than “Low” pigs (P < 0.05). Although sporadic tail biting occurred, only 0.69% of the pigs had their tails bitten severely enough that they became shorter than half of a normal undocked tail. The average enrichment cost for the post-weaning period was <€2 per pig. In conclusion, the high enrichment replenishment rate increased growth and reduced damaging behaviors compared to the low replenishment rate pigs. Overall, these findings show that the provision and regular replenishment of multiple, slat-compatible, enrichment sources can reduce tail damage to manageable levels without the need for tail docking.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of combined dietary and enrichment strategies to manage tail biting in pigs with intact tails in a conventional fully-slatted floor housing system. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design was used. Pigs had either a high fibre (weaner 5.3% and finisher 11.6% of crude fibre) or standard fibre diet (weaner 3.7% and finisher 5.9% of crude fibre). In the weaner stage, pigs had either a spruce wooden post (supplied in a wall-mounted dispenser) or a rubber floor toy as a enrichment device, and in the finisher stage, they had either the same or alternate enrichment item. Six hundred and seventy-two pigs were assigned to 48 pens of 14 pigs and followed from weaning until slaughter. Individual tail lesion scores and pen level behaviours were directly recorded every 2 weeks. Twenty-six pens had tail biting outbreaks and 161 injured pigs needed removal for treatment. Pigs fed with the high fibre diet performed more tail biting (p < 0.05) and tended to have a worse tail damage scores than those fed the standard fibre diet (p = 0.08). Pigs which had the floor toy as weaners and wood as finishers tended to have fewer tail lesions in the finisher stage than their counterparts (p = 0.06). Pigs receiving the floor toy as enrichment interacted with the enrichment more frequently overall (p < 0.001) and performed fewer harmful behaviours in the weaner stage (p < 0.05). Overall, higher fibre in the diet in a relatively barren environment did not help reduce tail biting or tail lesions. Altering the fibre level in the pigs' diet and providing a single enrichment device to undocked pigs on fully slatted floors resulted in a high level of tail biting and a large proportion of pigs with partial tail amputation.

Gait defects, assessed as gait score (GS), is a common welfare problem in broiler chicken production. The aim of this study was to examine whether birds with GS2 experience pain and poor locomotor ability compared to birds of lower GS. From day 0-27 of age, 600 Ross 308 birds were housed in simulated commercial conditions (stocking density 40 kg/m(2)). On day 27, all birds were gait scored and 192 birds (4 blocks of 48 birds) were selected as experimental birds based on gait score (GS0 or GS2). On day 28, a runway test with and without obstacles was performed to examine the locomotor ability of the birds. Approximately 3 h before testing, the experimental birds were injected with the NSAID carprofen (25 mg/kg s.c.) or saline (equivalent volume). A Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) test was conducted on day 38, after 4 days of conditioning to a chamber (70 x 70 cm; painted either green with vertical stripes or orange with horizontal stripes) after injection with carprofen or saline. The broilers were expected to show a preference for the place in which they experienced a positive emotional state as induced by the mitigation of pain by carprofen. In the runway test, GS0 birds reached the end of the runway with obstacles faster compared to GS2 birds (P = 0.04) and tended to be faster than GS1 birds (P = 0.08). No effect of carprofen was found on the behaviour in the runway and no effect of GS on the behaviour in the runway without obstacles. In the CPP test, there was no effect of GS or carprofen on chamber preference (P > 0.05). The results showed clear differences between birds of GS2 and lower GSs in terms of locomotor response in the runway, indicating that locomotor ability was compromised with increased GS. The results could not confirm whether these differences in locomotor ability are related to or due to increased pain with increased GS.

Solutions are needed to keep pigs under commercial conditions without tail biting outbreaks (TBOs). However, as TBOs are inevitable, even in well managed farms, it is crucial to know how to manage TBOs when they occur. We evaluated the effectiveness of multi-step intervention protocols to control TBOs. Across 96 pens (1248 undocked pigs) managed on fully-slatted floors, 40 TBOs were recorded (≥3 out of 12–14 pigs with fresh tail wounds). When an outbreak was identified, either the biters or the victims were removed, or enrichment (three ropes) was added. If the intervention failed, another intervention was randomly used until all three interventions had been deployed once. Fifty percent of TBOs were controlled after one intervention, 30% after 2–3 interventions, and 20% remained uncontrolled. A high proportion of biters/victims per pen reduced intervention success more so than the type of intervention. When only one intervention was used, adding ropes was the fastest method to overcome TBOs. Removed biters and victims were successfully reintroduced within 14 days back to their home pens. In conclusion, 80% of TBOs were successfully controlled within 18.4 ± 1.7 days on average using one or multiple cost-effective intervention strategies.

Tail amputation by tail docking or as an extreme consequence of tail biting in commercial pig production potentially has serious implications for animal welfare. Tail amputation causes peripheral nerve injury that might be associated with lasting chronic pain. The aim of this study was to investigate the short- and long-term effects of tail amputation in pigs on caudal DRG gene expression at different stages of development, particularly in relation to genes associated with nociception and pain. Microarrays were used to analyse whole DRG transcriptomes from tail amputated and sham-treated pigs 1, 8, and 16 weeks following tail treatment at either 3 or 63 days of age (8 pigs/treatment/age/time after treatment; n = 96). Tail amputation induced marked changes in gene expression (up and down) compared to sham-treated intact controls for all treatment ages and time points after tail treatment. Sustained changes in gene expression in tail amputated pigs were still evident 4 months after tail injury. Gene correlation network analysis revealed two co-expression clusters associated with amputation: Cluster A (759 down-regulated) and Cluster B (273 up-regulated) genes. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis identified 124 genes in Cluster A and 61 genes in Cluster B associated with both “inflammatory pain” and “neuropathic pain.” In Cluster A, gene family members of ion channels e.g., voltage-gated potassium channels (VGPC) and receptors e.g., GABA receptors, were significantly down-regulated compared to shams, both of which are linked to increased peripheral nerve excitability after axotomy. Up-regulated gene families in Cluster B were linked to transcriptional regulation, inflammation, tissue remodeling, and regulatory neuropeptide activity. These findings, demonstrate that tail amputation causes sustained transcriptomic expression changes in caudal DRG cells involved in inflammatory and neuropathic pain pathways.

In fully slatted systems, tail biting is difficult to manage when pigs’ tails are not docked because loose enrichment material can obstruct slurry systems. This pilot study sought to determine: a) whether intact-tailed pigs can be reared with a manageable level of tail biting by using multiple slat-compatible enrichment; b) whether a variation of enrichment has an effect; and c) whether pigs show a preference in enrichment use. Ninety-six undocked pigs were given the same enrichment items from one week after birth until weaning. At weaning, four different combinations of 8 enrichment items were utilized based on predefined characteristics. These were randomly assigned to 8 pens (n = 12 pigs/pen). Four pens had the same combination (SAME) from assignment and four pens switched combinations every two weeks (SWITCH). Individual lesion scores, interactions with the enrichment, and harmful behaviours were recorded. The average tail score during the experiment was low (0.93 ± 0.02). Only one pig in a SAME pen had a severely bitten tail (partly amputated). The overall level of interaction with enrichment did not decline over time. Pigs interacted with a rack of loose material most frequently (p < 0.001). The study showed promising results for rearing undocked pigs on fully slatted floors using slat-compatible enrichment.

Cytokines are cell signalling proteins that mediate a number of different physiological responses. The accurate measurement of cytokine profiles is important for a variety of diagnostic and prognostic scenarios in relation to animal health and welfare. Simultaneous quantification of cytokine profiles in a single sample is now possible using fluorescent microsphere immunoassays (FMIA). We describe the development and validation of a novel multiplex assay using the Bio-Plex® 200 system to quantify cytokines in five different porcine tissues (brain, placenta, synovial tissue and fluid, plasma). The cytokine profiles are both tissue, and research hypothesis, -dependent but include Interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), Interleukin-4 (IL-4), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α). This methods paper is reported in two parts: the development of a FMIA for porcine tissues and validation of pre-treatment for optimal cytokine recovery in porcine brain, placenta, synovial tissue and plasma. Validation steps are critical in ensuring an assay is suitable for novel sample types. This technique advances traditional ELISAs by: •FMIA provides insight into the profiles of multiple porcine cytokines in certain situations (e.g. disease, parturition).•Use of the Bio-Plex® 200 system to investigate novel sample types, including brain, placenta and synovial tissue.•Multiplexing utilises a fraction of the sample volume compared with multiple ELISAs.

Council Regulation (EC) no. 1099/2009 on the protection of animals at the time of killing restricts the use of manual cervical dislocation in poultry on farms in the European Union (EU) to birds weighing up to 3 kg and 70 birds per person per day. However, few studies have examined whether repeated application of manual cervical dislocation has welfare implications and whether these are dependent on individual operator skill or susceptibility to fatigue. We investigated the effects of repeated application (100 birds at a fixed killing rate of 1 bird per 2 min) and multiple operators on two methods of killing of broilers, laying hens, and turkeys in commercial settings. We compared the efficacy and welfare impact of repeated application of cervical dislocation and a percussive killer (Cash Poultry Killer, CPK), using 12 male stockworkers on three farms (one farm per bird type). Both methods achieved over 96% kill success at the first attempt. The killing methods were equally effective for each bird type and there was no evidence of reduced performance with time and/or bird number. Both methods of killing caused a rapid loss of reflexes, indicating loss of brain function. There was more variation in reflex durations and post-mortem damage in birds killed by cervical dislocation than that found using CPK. High neck dislocation was associated with improved kill success and more rapid loss of reflexes. The CPK caused damage to multiple brain areas with little variation. Overall, the CPK was associated with faster abolition of reflexes, with fewer birds exhibiting them at all, suggestive of better welfare outcomes. However, technical difficulties with the CPK highlighted the advantages of cervical dislocation, which can be performed immediately with no equipment. At the killing rates tested, we did not find evidence to justify the current EU limit on the number of birds that one operator can kill on-farm by manual cervical dislocation.

Provision of adequate environmental enrichment on pig farms is a legal requirement under current EU legislation and also alleviates the risk of tail biting. Wood is an organic alternative where loose bedding, which has been identified as the optimal enrichment, is not possible on fully-slatted floors since it may disrupt the slurry system. The study compared four different wood types (beech (Fagus sylvatica), larch (Larix decidua), spruce (Picea sitchensis), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)) as enrichment, taking into account the qualities of the wood, economic considerations, and effectiveness at reducing damaging behaviours and lesions. A total of 800 tail docked finisher pigs on an Irish commercial farm were used. Eight pens were provided with each wood type (25 pigs/pen), and the study was conducted over 2 replicates in time. In each pen a single wooden post was presented to the pigs in a metal dispenser with two lateral chains during the finisher period (12-22 weeks of age). The rate of wear, moisture content, and hardness of the wood along with lesion scorings and behavioural observation on pigs were monitored. Spruce was consumed more quickly than other wood types in terms of weight loss and reduction in length (P < 0.001), resulting in a greater cost per pig. Pigs were observed interacting with the spruce more frequently than the other wood types (P < 0.05). Pigs also interacted with the wood more often than the chains in spruce allocated pens (P < 0.001). Overall the interaction with wood posts did not decline significantly across time. However, there was no difference in the frequency of harmful behaviours (tail/ear/flank-biting) observed between wood types, and also no difference in the effectiveness of the different types of wood in reducing tail or ear damage. There was a positive correlation between ear lesion and tear-staining scores (r(p) = 0.286, P < 0.01), and between tail lesion and tail posture scores (r(p) = 0.206, P < 0.05). Wood types did not affect visceral condemnation obtained in the slaughterhouse. Wood is a potentially suitable enrichment material, yet the wood species could influence its attractiveness to pigs.

The authors wish to make the following correction to their paper[...]