We used the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT, India) to observe Saturn in the metric domain – at 0.49 m (610 MHz), 1.28 m (235 MHz), and 2.0 m (150 MHz) -with the aim of constraining the deep atmospheric ammonia and water vapor concentrations around 10-20 kbar. We have obtained a clean detection at 610 MHz, with a disk brightness temperature Tb= 216 ± 32 K, and no significant emission outside of the disk, thus confirming model predictions about the weakness of synchrotron radiation by magnetospheric electrons (Lorenzato et al. 2012, Lorenzato et al. 2012). A marginal detection was obtained at 235 MHz, with Tb= 404 ± 249 K, while an upper limit of 1210 K was set at 150 MHz. Unfortunately, some of the GMRT measurements were affected by strong ionospheric scintillation or radio frequency interferences (RFI). Although the reduction of the LOFAR measurements is much more complex, results are expected in the near future and they will complement nicely with those obtained with the GMRT. We will discuss the constraints resulting from these observations on Saturn's deep atmospheric composition.

The recent derivation of a lower limit for the N-14/N-15 ratio in Saturn's ammonia, which is found to be consistent with the Jovian value, prompted us to revise models of Saturn's formation using as constraints the supersolar abundances of heavy elements measured in its atmosphere. Here we find that it is possible to account for both Saturn's chemical and isotopic compositions if one assumes the formation of its building blocks at similar to 45 K in the protosolar nebula, provided that the O abundance was similar to 2.6 times protosolar in its feeding zone. To do so, we used a statistical thermodynamic model to investigate the composition of the clathrate phase that formed during the cooling of the protosolar nebula and from which the building blocks of Saturn were agglomerated. We find that Saturn's O/H is at least similar to 34.9 times protosolar and that the corresponding mass of heavy elements (similar to 43.1 M-circle dot) is within the range predicted by semi-convective interior models.

The origin of Titan's nitrogen-rich atmosphere is thought to be ammonia ice, but this has not yet been confirmed. Furthermore, it is uncertain whether the building blocks of Titan formed within the Saturnian subnebula or in the colder protosolar nebula (PSN). Recent measurements of the nitrogen isotope ratio in cometary ammonia, combined with evolutionary constraints on the nitrogen isotopes in Titan's atmosphere provide firm evidence that the nitrogen in Titan's atmosphere must have originated as ammonia ice formed in the PSN under conditions similar to that of cometary formation. This result has important implications for the projected D/H ratio in cometary methane, nitrogen isotopic fractionation in the PSN and the source of nitrogen for Earth's atmosphere.

We describe the main scientific goals to be addressed by future in situ exploration of Saturn.

We derived the mole fraction of H2 in the troposphere of Titan from an analysis of the H2–N2 dimer S0(0) rotational transition seen near 355cm−1 in spectra recorded by the Composite Infra-Red Spectrometer (CIRS) on the Cassini spacecraft between March 2006 and February 2007. We find a globally-averaged value of (9.6±2.4)×10−4, consistent with the earlier determination based on the Voyager IRIS dataset, and with the value obtained from the Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS) experiment on the Huygens probe, but a factor of ∼4 lower than that measured by the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) in the 1025–1475km altitude range. Interestingly, the latitudinal distribution of H2 appears to be non-uniform, with a mole fraction above 50°N in excess of 30–70% (±40%) relatively to the globally-averaged value. Such a non-uniform distribution is unexpected since H2 is thought to be chemically inert in the lower atmosphere of Titan. It is proposed that the observed enhancement in the north polar region is caused by downwelling occurring during the winter season in the polar vortex. This interpretation is dependent on the existence of a vertical gradient of the H2 concentration in the stratosphere, as suggested by the differences between the INMS values and those measured by GCMS and CIRS, although such a gradient is not consistent with the present understanding of dynamics and chemistry in Titan's atmosphere.

We report measurements of the equilibrium pressure of single guest clathrate hydrates of C2H6, C2H2, and Kr at low temperatures (mainly in the range (150 to 230) K). The results are compared with other data reported in the literature and used to determine new empirical correlation laws allowing to calculate the equilibrium pressure of clathrates of these species at any temperature below the freezing point of water. Enthalpies of clathrate formation/dissociation for these molecules are estimated using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and show good agreement with previous reported calorimetric measurements. These results are of particular interest for studies of extraterrestrial ice-rich environments such as comets and icy moons in the solar system.

The "Ice Giants" Uranus and Neptune are a different class of planet compared to Jupiter and Saturn. Studying these objects is important for furthering our understanding of the formation and evolution of the planets, and unravelling the fundamental physical and chemical processes in the Solar System. The importance of filling these gaps in our knowledge of the Solar System is particularly acute when trying to apply our understanding to the numerous planetary systems that have been discovered around other stars. The Uranus Pathfinder (UP) mission thus represents the quintessential aspects of the objectives of the European planetary community as expressed in ESA's Cosmic Vision 2015–2025. UP was proposed to the European Space Agency's M3 call for medium-class missions in 2010 and proposed to be the first orbiter of an Ice Giant planet. As the most accessible Ice Giant within the M-class mission envelope Uranus was identified as the mission target. Although not selected for this call the UP mission concept provides a baseline framework for the exploration of Uranus with existing low-cost platforms and underlines the need to develop power sources suitable for the outer Solar System. The UP science case is based around exploring the origins, evolution, and processes at work in Ice Giant planetary systems. Three broad themes were identified: (1) Uranus as an Ice Giant, (2) An Ice Giant planetary system, and (3) An asymmetric magnetosphere. Due to the long interplanetary transfer from Earth to Uranus a significant cruise-phase science theme was also developed. The UP mission concept calls for the use of a Mars Express/Rosetta-type platform to launch on a Soyuz–Fregat in 2021 and entering into an eccentric polar orbit around Uranus in the 2036–2037 timeframe. The science payload has a strong heritage in Europe and beyond and requires no significant technology developments.

We review our current understanding of the interior structure and thermal evolution of Saturn, with a focus on recent results in the Cassini era. There has been important progress in understanding physical inputs, including equations of state of planetary materials and their mixtures, physical parameters like the gravity field and rotation rate, and constraints on Saturnian free oscillations. At the same time, new methods of calculation, including work on the gravity field of rotating fluid bodies, and the role of interior composition gradients, should help to better constrain the state of Saturn’s interior, now and earlier in its history. However, a better appreciation of modeling uncertainties and degeneracies, along with a greater exploration of modeling phase space, still leave great uncertainties in our understanding of Saturn’s interior. Further analysis of Cassini data sets, as well as precise gravity field measurements from the Cassini Grand Finale orbits, will further revolutionize our understanding of Saturn’s interior over the next few years.

Two values of D/H have been reported for gases in Titan’s atmosphere: in CH4 D/H = 1.32 +0.15/-0.13 x 10-4 , while in H2 , D/H = 2.3 0.5 x 10-4 . Coustenis et al. have proposed that this discrepancy can be explained by an enrichment of D/H in the H2 produced by photolysis of CH4 . We offer an alternative: mixing of H2 from CH4 with H2 from Titan’s interior. The H2 is produced by water-rock reactions. This hypothesis is consistent with measurements of D/H in H2O from comets, provided that both cometary and Titan ice are proto-solar. The absence of Kr and Xe in the Huygens GCMS spectra has been interpreted as evidence of some special process(es) acting to deplete these gases in Titan’s atmosphere. We show that for every known reservoir of noble gases in the solar system, the upper limits of 10-8 on mixing ratios of Kr and Xe established by the GCMS preclude the detection of these two gases. Hence there is no requirement for any special process(es) to explain the observations.

We report here the first detection of mono-deuterated acetylene (acetylene-d1, C2HD) in Titan's atmosphere from the presence of two of its emission bands at 678 and 519 cm−1 as observed in CIRS spectral averages of nadir and limb observations taken between July 2004 and mid-2007. By using new laboratory spectra for this molecule, we were able to derive its abundance at different locations over Titan's disk. We find the C2HD value (1.27−0.22−0.13×10−9) to be roughly constant with latitude from the South to about 45° N and then to increase slightly in the North, as is the case for C2H2. Fitting the 678 cm−1 ν5 band simultaneously with the nearby C2H2 729 cm−1 ν5 band, allows us to infer a D/H ratio in acetylene on Titan with an average of the modal values of 2.09±0.45×10−4 from the nadir observations, the uncertainties being mainly due to the vertical profile used for the fit of the acetylene band. Although still subject to significant uncertainty, this D/H ratio appears to be significantly larger than the one derived in methane from the CH3D band (upper limit of 1.5×10−4; Bézard, B., Nixon, C.A., Kleiner, I., Jennings, D.E., 2007. Icarus, 191, 397–400; Coustenis, A., Achterberg, R., Conrath, B., Jennings, D., Marten, A., Gautier, D., Bjoraker, G., Nixon, C., Romani, P., Carlson, R., Flasar, M., Samuelson, R.E., Teanby, N., Irwin, P., Bézard, B., Orton, G., Kunde, V., Abbas, M., Courtin, R., Fouchet, Th., Hubert, A., Lellouch, E., Mondellini, J., Taylor, F.W., Vinatier, S., 2007. Icarus 189, 35–62). From the analysis of limb data we infer D/H values of 9.6−3.1−4.5×10−5 (at 54° S), 2.4−0.7−0.9×10−4 (at 15° S), 2.7−0.6−0.7×10−4 (at 54° N) and 1.9−0.5−0.7×10−4 (at 80° N), which average to a mean value of 1.63±0.27×10−4.

Spectral observations of Saturn from the far infrared spectrometer aboard the Cassini spacecraft [Flasar, F.M., et al., 2005. Temperatures, winds, and composition in the Saturnian system. Science 307, 1247–1251] have revealed that the C/H ratio in the planet is in fact about twice higher than previously derived from ground based observations and in agreement with the C/H value derived from Voyager IRIS by Courtin et al. [1984. The composition of Saturn's atmosphere at northern temperate latitudes from Voyager IRIS spectra - NH3, PH3, C2H2, C2H6, CH3D, CH4, and the Saturnian D/H isotopic ratio. Astrophys. J. 287, 899–916]. The implications of this measurement are reanalyzed in the present report on the basis that volatiles observed in cometary atmospheres, namely CO2, CH4, NH3 and H2S may have been trapped as solids in the feeding zone of the planet. CH4 and H2S may have been in the form of clathrate hydrates while CO2 presumably condensed in the cooling solar nebula. Carbon may also have been incorporated in organics. Conditions of temperature and pressure ease the hydratation of NH3. Such icy grains were included in planetesimals which subsequently collapsed into the hydrogen envelope of the planet, then resulting in C, N and S enrichments with respect to the solar abundance. Our calculations are consistent, within error bars, with observed elemental abundances on Saturn provided that the carbon trapped in planetesimals was mainly in the form of CH4 clathrate and CO2 ice (and maybe as organics) while nitrogen was in the form of NH3 hydrate. Our approach has implications on the possible pattern of noble gases in Saturn, since we predict that contrary to what is observed in Jupiter, Ar and Kr should be in solar abundance while Xe might be strongly oversolar. The only way to verify this scenario is to send a probe making in situ mass spectrometer measurements. Our scenario also predicts that the 14N/15N ratio should be somewhat smaller in Saturn than measured in Jupiter by Galileo.

We have analyzed data recorded by the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) aboard the Cassini spacecraft during the Titan flybys T0–T10 (July 2004–January 2006). The spectra characterize various regions on Titan from 70° S to 70° N with a variety of emission angles. We study the molecular signatures observed in the mid-infrared CIRS detector arrays (FP3 and FP4, covering roughly the 600–1500 cm−1 spectral range with apodized resolutions of 2.54 or 0.53 cm−1). The composite spectrum shows several molecular signatures: hydrocarbons, nitriles and CO2. A firm detection of benzene (C6H6) is provided by CIRS at levels of about 3.5×10−9 around 70° N. We have used temperature profiles retrieved from the inversion of the emission observed in the methane ν4 band at 1304 cm−1 and a line-by-line radiative transfer code to infer the abundances of the trace constituents and some of their isotopes in Titan's stratosphere. No longitudinal variations were found for these gases. Little or no change is observed generally in their abundances from the south to the equator. On the other hand, meridional variations retrieved for these trace constituents from the equator to the North ranged from almost zero (no or very little meridional variations) for C2H2, C2H6, C3H8, C2H4 and CO2 to a significant enhancement at high northern (early winter) latitudes for HCN, HC3N, C4H2, C3H4 and C6H6. For the more important increases in the northern latitudes, the transition occurs roughly between 30 and 50 degrees north latitude, depending on the molecule. Note however that the very high-northern latitude results from tours TB–T10 bear large uncertainties due to few available data and problems with latitude smearing effects. The observed variations are consistent with some, but not all, of the predictions from dynamical-photochemical models. Constraints are set on the vertical distribution of C2H2, found to be compatible with 2-D equatorial predictions by global circulation models. The D/H ratio in the methane on Titan has been determined from the CH3D band at 1156 cm−1 and found to be 1.17−0.28+0.23×10−4. Implications of this deuterium enrichment, with respect to the protosolar abundance on the origin of Titan, are discussed. We compare our results with values retrieved by Voyager IRIS observations taken in 1980, as well as with more recent (1997) disk-averaged Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) results and with the latest Cassini–Huygens inferences from other instruments in an attempt to better comprehend the physical phenomena on Titan.