The valorisation of Anaerobic digestion waste streams into algal biomass to produce a protein alternative to soybeans could have significant commercial and environmental value. It has the benefit of alleviating the pressure of disposal of nutrient-rich digestate that is rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and trace metals, while potentially reducing the cost of microalgae production. Currently, the use of soybean protein in animal feed has significant negative environmental issues and high carbon footprint associated with its use. This study investigates three types of Anaerobic digestion to grow Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin microalgae. The results found that the crude protein in all concentrations of cow waste and food waste digestates were found to produce a significantly higher concentration of crude protein in comparison to the F/2 control. In addition, cow waste 1% and pig waste 1% formulations were found to have favourable fatty acid profiles, which has significant health benefits in the livestock industry. There was no significant difference in the total fatty acids found in cow waste 1% and pig waste 1% digestates compared to the F/2 control, which was in the range of 243.4 to 269.4 mg/g (dry weight). The other formulations produced a significantly lower (p < .05) concentration of total fatty acids compared to the control. Cow waste 1% was found to be richer in omega-3, eicosapentaenoic acid, compared to pig waste 1%, however, no significant difference was found between the eicosapentaenoic acid, concentration of cow waste 1% and the F/2 control. Overall, in terms of highest total fatty acids and crude protein, cow waste 1% digestate was found to perform the best out of all the digestates tested, and outperformed the F/2 control in terms of crude protein. The P. tricornutum grown in digestate was also found to bioaccumulate higher levels of calcium. P. tricornutum grown in cow waste 1% digestate could offer an alternative viable locally grown protein source for the animal feed industry, with the added advantage of being rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and calcium.

Cold pressed rapeseed oil (CPRO) is a relatively recent development in rapeseed processing, which produces a quality product with a high market value. High field NMR (400 MHz) is a well-established tool in food analysis, while low-field NMR (60 MHz) is much less studied. This study aims to establish the effectiveness of both techniques in identifying binary adulteration in CPRO. Three adulteration scenarios were investigated: a) CPRO and refined rapeseed oil (RRO); b) CPRO and refined sunflower oil (RSO); and c) CPRO and RRO or RSO. A range of classification techniques were trialled as well as partial least squares regression to gauge predictive quantification performance. The 400 MHz NMR achieved classification rates of 100% in the scenarios with a single adulterant, and 93% in the multiple adulterant scenario. The 60 MHz NMR produced lower but still encouraging classification rates (RSO 92%; RRO 85%; both RRO and RSO 87%).

In this study, a new screening technique for the detection of two types of oil adulterants in cold pressed rapeseed oil is investigated. The calibration models built with four different multivariate classifiers (SIMCA, PLS‐DA, LDA‐KNN, and LDA‐SVM) are based on spectral fingerprints from either FT‐IR and Raman instruments from authentic pure oils and in‐house admixtures of the oils involved. When refined sunflower oil is the adulterant, both FT‐IR and Raman produce effective models with high sensitivity of 86% and 93% respectively. When refined rapeseed oil is the adulterant the sensitivity decreases. This is explained by the chemical differences of the two adulterants. PLS‐R quantification analysis estimates minimum detection levels of 15% (Raman) and 9% (FT‐IR) when refined sunflower oil is the adulterant, and 22% (Raman) and 64% (FT‐IR) when refined rapeseed oil is the adulterant. This initial study shows the potential of Raman spectroscopy to be utilized for the screening of cold pressed rapeseed oil authenticity.Practical Applications: It has been well documented in the past that high‐value edible oils can be easily adulterated with lower cost oils for economic gain. Although the cold pressed rapeseed oil industry has not experienced such fraud, it would be prudent to have analytical techniques available to authenticate genuine oils quickly. This would further strengthen cold pressed rapeseed oil's reputation as a product free from substitutional fraud. These calibration models can tool the industry and regulatory bodies with a screening method to detect authenticity in realistic levels.A feasibility study regarding cold pressed rapeseed oil adulteration is investigated. Cold pressed rapeseed oil is adulterated with either refined rapeseed oil or refined sunflower oil and spectra is acquired using either Raman or FT‐IR spectroscopy. A library of spectra is gathered which includes pure cold pressed rapeseed oil and cold pressed rapeseed oil admixtures of varying concentrations. Chemometric analysis is carried out on the dataset with both classification and quantification techniques. The optimum instrument‐chemometric pairings for cold pressed rapeseed oil authentication are discussed.

This study exposed seven rapeseed cultivars to various seed pre‐processing practices. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of pre‐processing on cold pressed rapeseed oil parameters associated with health and flavor. Results showed the pre‐processing in this study were not a significant factor regarding oil quality. The total phenols of oils from unprocessed seeds ranged from 0.005–2.468 mg/kg oil. The phenolic acids investigated in the roasted group averaging 10.386 mg/kg and the microwaved group averaging 8.015 mg/kg. Part of this increase was due to the formation of canolol in these groups. Microwaved and roasted groups had significantly higher DPPH radical scavenging potential than the other groups. The thermal pre‐processing techniques also significantly altered the volatile composition of the roasted and microwaved groups. Ultrasound pre‐processing had no significant impact on any of the parameters studied. Practical applications : The regulations surrounding cold pressing means that there are restrictions regarding extraction procedures and the treatment of the oil after cold pressing. This means that the main opportunity to alter cold pressed oil is pre‐processing of the seed (in this case rapeseed). Pre‐processing of rapeseed can alter the composition of cold pressed rapeseed oil without impinging on cold pressing regulations. This study shows how pre‐processing techniques can increase the attributes of cold pressed rapeseed oil in relation to antioxidant activity and phenolic acids. This work shows that pre‐processing has a much greater effect on these parameters than varietal selection. Rapeseed pre‐processing and subsequent analysis of cold pressed rapeseed oil compounds associated with flavor and health.

Various chemical parameters were used to characterize a wide range of cold pressed rapeseed oils and to contrast the findings with refined rapeseed and extra virgin olive oil. There were significant differences between cold pressed rapeseed oils regarding almost all measured parameters. Volatile composition analysis showed that hexanal, 3‐methyl pentane and 1‐butene, 4‐isothiocyanato were the most abundant compounds. There was no correlation between volatile compounds and geographical region of cold pressed rapeseed oils. French cold pressed rapeseed oils were found in exhibit significantly higher antioxidant activity levels than cold pressed rapeseed oils from other regions. Refined rapeseed oil was found to have a higher antioxidant activity but have significantly lower levels of phenolic acids (0.008 mg/kg oil) than cold pressed rapeseed oil (0.46 mg/kg oil). These phenolic acids appear to be important for oxidative stability as cold pressed rapeseed oil was more stable under heat stress than refined rapeseed oil. Olive oil was the most stable under heat stress, largely due to its comparatively high saturated fat content. Antioxidant potential, phenolic acids and peroxide values were found to be the main factors differentiating cold pressed rapeseed oil from refined rapeseed oil. Practical applications : Cold pressed rapeseed oil is a relatively new oil to the market and this study is the first to examine oils available to the British, Irish and French consumers. It shows the compositional variation of oils on the market by analyzing many parameters important for oil quality and consumer palatability. Antioxidant behavior and phenolic acid identification indicate potential health benefiting properties. This research also compares cold pressed rapeseed oils with market competitors which allows for clear comparison of these widely used edible oils. Cold pressed rapeseed oil is made by mechanically crushing rapeseeds at a low temperature, followed by filtering and bottling the oil. This work investigates the chemical composition of cold pressed rapeseed oil, along with its antioxidant capacity and stability under heat stress. Cold pressed rapeseed oil is also compared to market competitors; refined rapeseed oil and extra virgin olive oil.