Tomato, Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae), is a vegetable commodity which originated in the South American Andes, and is consumed worldwide today. Tomato is attacked by a number of pests causing damage not only to the fruit and stem but also to the root system of the plant. Because of these pests, insecticides are used, overusage of which leads to the development of resistance in pests, and human and environmental health hazards. Fortunately, biological control of tomato pests is a feasible alternative to using chemical insecticides. Biological control tactics including importation, augmentation, and conservation biocontrol are employed worldwide. Biocontrol agents involved in these studies include bacteria, entomopathogenic fungi, yeast, predatory insects, parasitoids, and entomopathogenic nematodes. The results of greenhouse, laboratory, and field-based studies indicate that the potential of biocontrol agents can be increased by understanding the pest–natural enemy interactions. The various biocontrol agents, their potentials, and limitations, as well as suggested management tactics to support biological control in tomato are presented in this chapter.

Strips of fallow vegetation along cropland borders are an effective strategy for providing northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) habitat. However, a limitation of fallow borders is the lack of nectar-producing vegetation needed to sustain many beneficial insect populations. Planted borders that contain mixes of prairie flowers and grasses may harbor more diverse arthropod communities, but the relative value of these borders as bobwhite brood habitat compared to fallow borders is unknown. Vegetation composition likely has the largest influence on a field border’s structural characteristics, which consequently may impact bobwhite foraging efficiency. Thus, actively planting field borders may not yield the vegetative composition and structure needed to provide quality brood habitat. We used groups of 6 human-imprinted bobwhite chicks as a bioassay for comparing 4 different field border treatments (planted native warm season grasses (NWSG) and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow vegetation, or mowed vegetation) as brood habitat from June to August 2009 and 2010. All field border treatments (0.33 ha each) were established around 9 organic crop fields. Groups of chicks were led through borders for 30-min foraging trials and immediately euthanized at the end of each trial. Their crops and gizzards were dissected in the laboratory, and eaten arthropods were measured, counted, and identified to taxonomic family. We used allometric equations to estimate the live weight of all arthropods consumed, and to calculate a mean foraging rate (grams of arthropods consumed/ chick/30 min) for each field border treatment. We used a modified leaf blower-vacuum to sample arthropod prey availability and diversity in each field border treatment. Sampled arthropods were counted and identified to taxomomic family. We also calculated a Shannon-Weiner diversity index for each field border treatment. Foraging rate did not differ among border treatments in 2009 or 2010. Similarly, mean arthropod densities and diversity calculated from blower-vac samples did not differ among treatments in 2009 or 2010. Chick foraging rate was relatively high and arthropod prey was abundant even in mowed field borders. We suspect the amount of arthropod prey foods is likely not a limiting factor for bobwhite chicks in uncultivated habitats, rather, vegetative structure that facilitates movement, supports a suitable thermal micro-climate, and provides protection from predators is most important for bobwhite broods. Our results suggest that field borders planted for promoting beneficial insects provide bobwhite brood habitat equivalent to fallow borders. However, beneficial insect habitats are expensive, and require additional time and funding to insure successful establishment. The cost of establishing planted NWSG and prairie flowers and planted prairie flowers only borders in our study was ~ $1,928 and $1,773/ha, respectively. Fallow borders are likely the most cost-effective option for landowners/managers whose primary interest is providing bobwhite habitat.

To assess overwintering refuge preferences by Telenomus podisi Ashmead, artificial refuges of varying geometries and composition were provided to wasps when exposed to overwintering conditions in an environmental chamber. Field sampling of leaf-litter and tree bark was also used in an effort to determine site preference of overwintering wasps. Under artificial overwintering conditions, wasps preferred to hang inverted while quiescent, regardless of the refuge design, indicating behavior that avoids precipitation or extreme temperature fluctuations during overwintering in field conditions. Wasps preferred refuges with wider gaps between upper and lower surfaces, avoiding spaces that were narrower than their standing height. Parasitoids also preferred settling at least 60 mm from refuge edges. Results suggest that T. podisi has a preference for the type of overwintering refuge that leaf litter may offer.

In order for successful biological pest control using parasitoids, the most suitable naturally available food resources, as well as the fitness of parasitoids feeding on these resources, need to be ascertained. The goal of this study was to improve the understanding of the ecological requirements and consequent fitness of one such parasitoid, T elenomus podisi A shmead ( H ymenoptera: Platygastridae), a predominant stink bug ( H eteroptera: P entatomidae) egg parasitoid native to southeastern USA . We assessed the effects of carbohydrate resources readily available in the wasp's natural habitat on longevity and fecundity of female T . podisi under laboratory conditions. Carbohydrate diets included in the study were buckwheat, F agopyrum esculentum M oench ( P olygonaceae) nectar and honeydew from cowpea aphid, A phis craccivora K och ( H emiptera: A phididae), compared with honey or water controls, which are normally used for laboratory rearing of this species. Eggs of P odisus maculiventris S ay ( H emiptera: P entatomidae) were provided as hosts for oviposition. Honeydew of cowpea aphid proved to be as good a nutrition source as buckwheat nectar, in enhancing wasp longevity and fecundity. We also assessed the importance of honeydew freshness on the biological attributes of T . podisi , as honeydew becomes crystallized or highly viscous on drying up and therefore may pose an issue for uptake by parasitoids. We found that fresh honeydew of the pea aphid, A cyrthosiphon pisum H arris ( H emiptera: A phididae) significantly enhanced wasp longevity when compared to a diet of 1‐day‐old honeydew and the fava bean leaf (control). However, fresh honeydew of green peach aphid, M yzus persicae S ulzer ( H emiptera: A phididae) had the same effect on wasp longevity, fecundity, and proportion of male progeny as radish leaf (control). The potential of certain ubiquitously available food resources, in enhancing biological control of economically damaging pests by parasitoids, is being highlighted in this study; information which could be valuable in similar parasitoid‐host systems as well.

Soil and foliar arthropod populations in agricultural settings respond to environmental disturbance and degradation, impacting functional biodiversity in agroecosystems. The objective of this study was to evaluate system level management effects on soil and foliar arthropod abundance and diversity in corn and soybean. Our field experiment was a completely randomized block design with three replicates for five farming systems which included: Conventional clean till, conventional long rotation, conventional no-till, organic clean till, and organic reduced till. Soil arthropod sampling was accomplished by pitfall trapping. Foliar arthropod sampling was accomplished by scouting corn and sweep netting soybean. Overall soil arthropod abundance was significantly impacted by cropping in corn and for foliar arthropods in soybeans. Conventional long rotation and organic clean till systems were highest in overall soil arthropod abundance for corn while organic reduced till systems exceeded all other systems for overall foliar arthropod abundance in soybeans. Foliar arthropod abundance over sampling weeks was significantly impacted by cropping system and is suspected to be the result of in-field weed and cover crop cultivation practices. This suggests that the sum of management practices within production systems impact soil and foliar arthropod abundance and diversity and that the effects of these systems are dynamic over the cropping season. Changes in diversity may be explained by weed management practices as sources of disturbance and reduced arthropod refuges via weed reduction. Furthermore, our results suggest agricultural systems lower in management intensity, whether due to organic practices or reduced levels of disturbance, foster greater arthropod diversity.

There are ≈40 million acres of turfgrass lawns throughout the United States, most of which are managed under chemical-intensive pest and fertilizer programs. “Organic lawn care” is being adopted more widely; however, unlike the formally defined policies and regulations that govern organic agriculture, the label organic lawn management has not been formally defined and is used to describe a variety of practices. Neighborhoods, cities, states, and provinces across North America are adopting policies regulating the use of pesticides and fertilizers in the landscape. In addition, a small but growing number of public institutions and individual consumers are successfully adopting alternative lawn care methods, including organic lawn care. Although perceived as environmentally friendly, the effects of organic management on insect diversity and pest management remain understudied. Organic lawn management may lead to increased lawn plant diversity, which in agroecosystems has enhanced ecological services provided by beneficial insect species. Effects of vegetative diversity on lawn pest management are less clear. Vegetative complexity and increased plant diversity in urban landscapes may enhance insect predator efficacy. The diversity of predatory insects varies between turfgrass varieties in response to prey populations. Mortality of insectivorous and granivorous ground beetles (Carabidae) while not directly impacted by pest management programs in turfgrass may be indirectly impacted by a reduction in the prevalence of plant species that provide alternative food resources. Previous studies have focused on herbivorous insects as well as predatory and parasitic insects that feed on them. Future studies should assess how lawn plant diversity resulting from organic management practices might impact insect communities in turfgrass.

Megacopta cribraria F. (Hemiptera: Plataspidae) was first reported in the United States near Atlanta, Georgia, in fall 2009 (Suiter et al. 2010, J. Integr. Pest Manag. 1: 1–4) and has since spread throughout the southeastern United States (http:// www.kudzubug.org/distribution_map.cfm). In Asia and the United States, it is commonly associated with its preferred host plant, kudzu, Pueraria montana Lour (Merr.) var. lobata (Willd.) (Fabales: Fabaceae) (Medal et al. 2013, Fla. Entomol. 96: 631–633). Nonetheless, M. cribraria has emerged as a significant pest of soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill and may damage a few other legumes in the United States (Eger et al. 2010, Insecta Mundi 0121: 1–11; Hu and Carroll 2012, htpp://agfax.com/2012/05/18/Alabama-soybean-kudzubugs-making-their-move/). In Georgia and South Carolina, yield losses in untreated soybean fields averaged 18% and ranged up to 59.6% (Greene et al. 2012, United Soybean Board, Chesterfield, MO; Seiter et al. 2012, J. Econ. Entomol. 106: 1676–1683). Apart from being odoriferous, crushed nymphs have reportedly caused skin rashes, thereby raising health concerns for workers in soybean fields (Ruberson et al. 2013, Appl Entomol Zool. 48: 3–13). Megacopta cribraria is also viewed as a nuisance pest in fall through spring when adults aggregate on or around homes to overwinter, apparently close to kudzu patches (Eger et al. 2010, Insecta Mundi 0121: 1–11; Ruberson et al. 2013). Little is known about the biology and ecology of M. cribraria in North America. Prominently, we do not understand their behavior and population dynamics when host plants are not available, as in the winter. Knowledge of the overwintering behavior and biology of this species could inform surveillance and management. This study was undertaken to identify overwintering refuge areas preferred by M.

Habitat manipulations, intentional provisioning of natural vegetation along crop edges, have been shown to enhance beneficial epigaeic invertebrate activity in many agricultural settings, but little research has been conducted on this practice in the southeast United States. We conducted a field-scale study to determine if habitat manipulations along the field edges of an organic crop rotation increase the activity-density of beneficial ground-dwelling invertebrates. Pitfall traps were used to collect micro and macro ground-dwelling organisms in nine organic crop fields (three each of maize, soybeans, and hay; 2.5-4.0 ha each) surrounded by four experimental habitat manipulations (planted native grass and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow vegetation, or mowed vegetation) during 2009 and 2010 in eastern North Carolina. Beneficial macro and micro invertebrates collected in these pitfall traps consisted primarily of Carabidae, Araneae, Collembola, and mite species. Results show that habitat manipulations had little effect on the activity-density of the dominant epigaeic invertebrates in our study system. Our results suggest that the activity-density of these organisms were instead determined by a combination of in-field characteristics, such as crop type, weed management practices, and within-field resources, along with the diversity of crop type in neighboring fields and the availability of other resources in the area.

1. Chemical espionage in nature may occur when predators or parasitoids home in on animal or plant communication signals. Parasitoid wasps are known to use pheromones emitted by adults hosts to locate host eggs, larvae or pupae. The response of Trichogramma egg parasitoids to a synthetic sex pheromone blend of moths has been shown in a number of studies over the past 40 years.2. Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) is a tiny parasitic wasp, attacking the eggs of the noctuid moth Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). This study investigated whether T. pretiosum homes in on the sex pheromone of H. virescens at close range. The arrestment response of the wasps to sex pheromone gland extracts of two types of female moths, so‐called high and low females, was also tested, referring to two selected extreme pheromone types of H. virescens. The study also investigated whether the wasps would mount females, possibly to hitchhike with them.3. The wasps were arrested by the common, ‘low’ pheromone, but not by the rare, ‘high’ pheromone or by extracts from male hairpencils. The wasps did not show a preference for separate sex pheromone compounds, but when pre‐exposed to the major sex pheromone component of H. virescens before the tests together with H. virescens eggs, they did show a preference, indicating learning behaviour. In the mounting experiments, mated females were mounted significantly more than virgin females or males, suggesting that hitchhiking is a strategy used by these wasps to locate moth eggs.4. This represents the first study to show a differential response of parasitoid wasps to two different sex pheromone types in a single host species. The results warrant further investigations into the potential role of parasitic wasps in the evolution of sexual communication in moths.

Weed seed predation was studied in nine organic crop fields (three each of maize, soybeans and hay; 2.5-4.0 ha each) surrounded by four experimental field border types (planted native grass and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow vegetation, or mowed vegetation) during the fall of 2009 and 2010 in eastern North Carolina. We used predator exclusion cages to determine the amount of weed seed removal caused by invertebrates and vertebrates. Three common agricultural weed species, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), broadleaf signalgrass (Urochloa platyphylla), and sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia), were adhered to individual cards and placed inside the exclosure cages once a month for two weeks. Activity-density of invertebrate weed seed predators was measured with pitfall traps. Results show that field border type had no effect on seed removal rates, but that crop type heavily influenced both weed seed predation and invertebrate seed predator activity-density. Weed seed predation was highest in the dense, perennial hay fields and lowest in the more open harvested maize fields. Activity-densities for field crickets (Gryllus sp.) and the ground beetle Harpalus pennsylvanicus were also high in the hay fields and low in the maize fields, while the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) seemed to prefer the open maize fields. These results show that increasing vegetative diversity in field borders is not always an effective method for conserving weed seed predators, but that higher quality habitat inside the crop field can be achieved by increasing ground cover. (c) 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Strips of fallow vegetation along cropland borders are an effective strategy for providing brood habitat for declining populations of upland game birds (Order: Galliformes), including northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), but fallow borders lack nectar-producing vegetation needed to sustain many beneficial insect populations (e.g., crop pest predators, parasitoids, and pollinator species). Planted borders that contain mixes of prairie flowers and grasses are designed to harbor more diverse arthropod communities, but the relative value of these borders as brood habitat is unknown. We used groups of six human-imprinted northern bobwhite chicks as a bioassay for comparing four different border treatments (planted native grass and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow vegetation, or mowed vegetation) as northern bobwhite brood habitat from June-August 2009 and 2010. All field border treatments were established around nine organic crop fields. Groups of chicks were led through borders for 30-min foraging trials and immediately euthanized, and eaten arthropods in crops and gizzards were measured to calculate a foraging rate for each border treatment. We estimated arthropod prey availability within each border treatment using a modified blower-vac to sample arthropods at the vegetation strata where chicks foraged. Foraging rate did not differ among border treatments in 2009 or 2010. Total arthropod prey densities calculated from blower-vac samples did not differ among border treatments in 2009 or 2010. Our results showed plant communities established to attract beneficial insects should maximize the biodiversity potential of field border establishment by providing habitat for beneficial insects and young upland game birds.

AbstractField borders established for wildlife conservation have been recognized as a possible venue for also promoting beneficial insect populations, such as parasitic wasps and pollinators, on agricultural lands. However, traditional fallow field borders lack nectar sources required to sustain beneficial insect communities, and their value to small mammals is not well‐understood. In October–November 2009, we trapped small mammals in four field‐border treatments (planted native, warm‐season grasses and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow vegetation, and frequently mowed vegetation) replicated around nine organic crop fields, and developed closed‐population models in Program MARK to estimate abundance in each border. We also measured vegetation cover within each border treatment from June to August 2009. We captured 491 individuals of two species, the hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) and house mouse (Mus musculus). Cotton rat abundance was ≥2 times greater in grass and flower borders and flowers‐only borders than in fallow borders, likely because of greater vegetation density and availability of preferred foods in planted borders. No cotton rats were captured in mowed borders, and house mouse abundance was ≥5 times lower in mowed borders than in other border types. Lower abundance of cotton rats and house mice in mowed borders emphasizes the importance of structurally complex non‐crop vegetation for supporting small‐mammal communities in agricultural landscapes. Field borders planted to promote beneficial insects may be a useful tool for maximizing the ecological services provided by non‐crop vegetation. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Field borders are an effective conservation strategy for providing habitat to overwintering sparrows, and may be a venue through which beneficial insect populations are promoted. However, traditional fallow field borders lack sufficient pollen and nectar sources required to sustain beneficial insect populations; therefore, borders planted to a mix of native prairie flowers and grasses may be needed if increases in beneficial insect populations are desired. Although the value of fallow borders to birds has been established, little is known about bird use of beneficial insect habitats. Using single-observer transect surveys, we compared overwintering sparrow densities among 4 field border treatments (planted native warm season grasses and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow, and mowed) replicated around 9 organic crop fields from November to March 20092010 and 20102011. Sparrow densities were 510 times lower in mowed borders than in other border treatments in 20092010 and 20102011, but did not differ among planted and fallow borders in either year. Planted field borders may be a useful conservation practice for providing habitat for both overwintering sparrows and beneficial insects. (c) 2012 The Wildlife Society.

A study was conducted to determine the utility of ground cover vegetation in managing the natural enemies of spruce spider mite (Oligonychus ununguis Jacobi) in Fraser fir production areas in 2 locations in North Carolina (Laurel Springs, Waynesville). Predatory phytoseiid mites were sampled by collecting vegetation from 4 ground cover species in experimental Fraser fir plots: white Dutch clover (Trifolium repens L.), mammoth red clover (Trifolium pretense L.), birdfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.), and fescue (Festuca spp.). The most abundant phytoseiid mite species were Typhlodromips sessor (DeLeon), Arrenoseius morgani (Chant), Proprioseiopsis solens (DeLeon), and Typhlodromalus peregrinus (Muma). There were no statistical differences in the effects of ground cover vegetation on phytoseiid mite abundance or diversity.

ABSTRACT In recent years, a total area of over 32 million ha in agriculture and forestry in the world has been treated annually with Trichogramma spp for controlling insect pests. In the world wide use of Trichogramma spp, the former USSR ranked first, followed by China and Mexico. Extensive utilization of this parasitoid was developed for rice, corn, sugarcane, cotton, vegetable and pine. The selection of suitable species, quality parasitoids, reasonable release rate per hectare, climate during release and release methods are the factors that determine the efficiency of Trichogramma spp. Therefore, investigations were carried out in the biocontrol laboratory at North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA, to examine costs (negative fitness effect as well as beneficial effects) for heat resistance acclimation in an egg parasitoid, T. exiguum by exposing of immature stages to 40o C for different periods. The focus of the study was on acclimation across life-cycle stages rather than short term hardening of adults. Three questions ware considered. Firstly, can adult resistance to a high temperature shock, be increased by pre-pupal acclimation and / or by pupal acclimation in T. exiguum?. Secondly, are there other benefits of acclimation?. Thirdly are treatments that increase resistance associated with costs in terms of decreased parasitism or decreased longevity and can these costs be overcome by modifying acclimation treatments. So for, there has been little work in Trichogramma spp even through these parasitoids form an important component of IPM strategy in many countries and despite the fact that high temperature decrease Trichogramma spp., parasitism rate. The findings indicates that acclimation can occur without costs in T. exiguum and suggest a general phenotypic approach for separating acclimation costs from other fitness costs by sub - lethal exposures.

Studies were performed to assess the operational feasibility of Trichogramma exiguum Pinto & Platner (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) augmentation for suppression of the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in commercial loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., plantations. Single inundative releases containing two cohorts of encapsulated T. exiguum at a potential rate of 224,200 +/- 27,600 females per ha per cohort were made into two 4-ha plots during the second R. frustrana generation in 2000. Augmentation failed to increase parasitism rates above those occurring naturally; yet, 10% fewer shoots were attacked by R. frustrana, but not below acceptable levels. Quality control data suggest that low emergence levels and intense predation by ants upon developing T. exiguum lowered actual release rates to 13,000 +/- 900 females per ha per cohort. The effect of capsule distribution and microclimate on the discovery of capsules by predators (indicated by some E. kuehniella egg removal), parasitoid predation (percentage of eggs removed or destroyed), and subsequent parasitoid emergence was investigated. Uniformly distributed capsules experienced significantly higher predation levels than clustered capsules, and capsules exposed to field conditions for 5 d experienced higher predation than those exposed for 3 d, independently of distribution. Discovery of capsules by predators was unaffected by distribution or exposure period. Microhabitat significantly impacted average maximum daily temperature, the number of consecutive hours per day at or above 35 degrees C, and parasitoid emergence percentages. Parasitoid emergence declined significantly in response to increasing number of consecutive hours per day above 35 degrees C. Microclimate did not impact capsule discovery by predators or predation levels. Augmentation of T. exiguum for suppression of R. frustrana damage may not be practical within P. taeda plantations.

To assess biological control as a management tool for the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae), the efficacy of Aphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) for suppression of A. gossypii in greenhouse-grown chrysanthemums, Dendranthema grandiflora (Tzvelev), was compared with a pesticide standard, imidacloprid (Marathon 1% G) and an untreated check. No significant differences were found between aphid populations in the two treatments. A. colemani and imidacloprid kept aphid numbers very low, with the correspondent aphid populations exhibiting very low intrinsic rates of increase (r(m) = -0.0369 and r(m) = 0.0151, respectively), in contrast to the exponential growth of aphid populations (r(m) = 0.1085) observed on the untreated plants. Parasitism levels in A. colemani plots ranged from 48.93 to 83.38%. Esthetic damage parameters, including exuviae, honeydew, and sooty mold on leaves, were significantly different between treatments and untreated control, and damage levels were minimal with the insecticide treatment and natural enemy releases. The cost of A. colemani releases was 4.7 times greater than the cost of the imidacloprid treatment.