Geographic information metadata provides a detailed description of geographic information resources. Well before digital data emerged, metadata were shown in the margins of paper maps to inform the reader of the name of the map, the scale, the orientation of the magnetic North, the projection used, the coordinate systems, the legend, and so on. Metadata were used to communicate practical information for the proper use of maps. When geographic information entered the digital era with geographic information systems, metadata was also collected digitally to describe datasets and the dataset collections for various purposes. Initially, metadata were collected and saved in digital files by data producers for their own specific needs. The sharing of geographic datasets that required producers to provide metadata with the dataset to guide proper use of the dataset—map scale, data sources, extent, datum, coordinate reference system, etc. Because of issues with sharing and no common understanding of metadata requirements, the need for metadata standardization was recognized by the geographic information community worldwide. The ISO technical committee 211 was created in 1994 with the scope of standardization in the field of digital geographic information to support interoperability. In the early years of the committee, standardization of metadata was initiated for different purposes, which culminated in the ISO 19115:2003 standard. Now, there are many ISO Geographic information standards that covers the various aspect of geographic information metadata. This paper traces an illustration of the development and evolution of the requirements and international standardization activities of geographic information metadata standards, profiles and resources, and how these attest to facilitating the discovery, evaluation, and appropriate use of geographic information in various contexts.

The Commission on Geoinformation Infrastructures and Standards of the International Cartographic Association ICA is working on defining models of spatial data infrastructures SDIs. SDI models from the enterprise and information viewpoints of the Reference Model for Open Distributed Processing RM-ODP have already been presented. Our model from the computational viewpoint identifies the main computational objects of an SDI and their interfaces, which are modelled using Unified Modelling Language UML component diagrams. Presented here is the first comprehensive SDI model from the computational viewpoint, which enhances the understanding of the computational objects and their interactions in an SDI. This viewpoint complements the previous two and together, the three viewpoints contribute towards a more holistic interpretation of an SDI, which is independent of specific SDI legislation, technology and implementations. For the computational viewpoint, we identified six computational objects, SDI Registry, SDI Data, SDI Processing, SDI Application, SDI Portrayal and SDI Management, and their provided and required interfaces. We describe the interactions of the computational objects in stakeholder activities and the roles they play in the different processes of SDI development and use, which we identified as Initiation, Creation, Management, Manipulation, Access, Processing, Evaluation and Liaison. Two tables summarise the SDI services that are provided by computational objects for stakeholder activities and SDI processes.

A spatial data infrastructure (SDI) is an evolving concept for facilitating, coordinating and monitoring the exchange and sharing of geospatial data and services. In earlier work, we developed a formal model for an SDI from the Enterprise, Information and Computational Viewpoints of the Reference Model for Open Distributed Processing. Within the Enterprise Viewpoint, we identified six stakeholders, including a Value-added Reseller (VAR), a stakeholder who adds value to an existing product or group of products, and then makes it available as a new product. A VAR is particularly important because they extend the usefulness of SDI products: high quality and useful VAR products help ensure continued funding by governments of publicly provided data. We engaged with various types of VAR around the world, to understand what encourages or inhibits VARs in an SDI, and the contributions VARs can make to an SDI. The results are described here.

Computer science provides a powerful tool that was virtually unknown three generations ago. Some of the classical fields of knowledge are geodesy (surveying), cartography, and geography. Electronics have revolutionized geodetic methods. Cartography has faced the dominance of the computer that results in simplified cartographic products. All three fields make use of basic components such as the Internet and databases. The Springer Handbook of Geographic Information is organized in three parts, Basics, Geographic Information and Applications.Some parts of the basics belong to the larger field of computer science. However, the reader gets a comprehensive view on geographic informationbecause the topics selected from computer science have a close relation to geographic information. The Springer Handbook of Geographic Information is written for scientists at universities and industry as well as advanced and PhD students.

The Commission on Spatial Data Standards of the International Cartographic Association is working to define formal models and technical characteristics of Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI). To date, this work has been restricted to the Enterprise and Information Viewpoints from the ISO Reference Model for Open Distributed Processing standard. The Commission has developed models for these two viewpoints. These models describe how the different parts of an SDI fit together in the viewpoints in question. These models should be seen as a contribution towards the overall model of the SDI and its technical characteristics. During the model development process, the roles of the different Actors in an SDI in the Enterprise and Information Viewpoints have also been identified in Use Case diagrams of an SDI. All the models have been developed using the Unified Modeling Language.