The ability to measure temperature in shock wave experiments has been a long-standing scientific challenge complicated by the short timescales involved (<1 microsecond) and the presence of nonthermal or external light sources that pollute measured radiances using optical pyrometry methods. In the current work, we present the first experimental data on cerium metal designed to measure the temperature on-Hugoniot from the low-pressure alpha phase well into the high-pressure liquid phase. Radiance data obtained in this work were used to determine the Hugoniot curves for solid (alpha-Ce) and liquid cerium by measuring the longitudinal stress and temperature simultaneously in the shocked state. These data were used to estimate the temperature for incipient shock melting and complete melting, and to further constrain a multiphase equation of state developed to describe the dynamic response of cerium at high pressures.

Pyrometry is one of the most prevalent techniques for measuring temperature in shock physics experiments. However, the challenges of applying pyrometry in such highly dynamic environments produces multiple sources of uncertainty that require investigation. An outstanding question is the degree of agreement between different pyrometers and different experiments. Here we report a series of novel plate impact experiments with simultaneous thermal radiance measurements using three different multi-wavelength optical pyrometry systems, each with different spatial and temporal resolutions, on samples shocked to identical states. We compare the temperatures measured by each system and their associated uncertainties using a number of emissivity assumptions. The results shown that the measurements from all three systems agree within uncertainty. Some non-thermal light contamination was observed despite a number of prevention measures.

Photonic Doppler Velocimetry is an interferometric technique for measuring the beat frequency of a moving surface, from which the calculated velocity profile of the surface can be used to describe the physical changes the material undergoes after high-impact shock. Such a technique may also be used to characterize the performance of small detonators and determine the time at which the surface began moving. In this work, we develop a semi-automated technique for extracting the time of initial movement from a normalized lineout of the power spectrogram near the offset frequency of each probe. We characterize the response bias of this method and compare with the time of initial movement obtained by hand calculation of the raw voltage data. Results are shown on data from shock experiments such as gas gun setups and explosives-driven flyer plates.

Doppler velocimetry is used extensively to measure velocities in dynamic experiments, but Doppler shifts of ≈1.3 GHz/km/s demand expensive digitizers. We discuss methods leveraging frequency down-mixing to reduce digitization requirements and costs.

Photonic Doppler Velocimetry (PDV) is routinely employed as a means of measuring surface velocities for shockwave experimentation. Scientists typically collect similar to 4 to 12 channels of PDV data and use extrapolation, assumptions, and models to determine the velocities in regions of the experiment that were not observed directly. We have designed, built and applied a new optical velocimetry diagnostic-the Multiplexed Photonic Doppler Velocimeter (MPDV)-for use on shock physics experiments that require a large number (100s) of spatial points to be measured. MPDV expands upon PDV measurement capabilities via frequency and time multiplexing using commercially available products developed for the telecommunications industry. The MPDV uses the heterodyne method to multiplex four data channels in the frequency domain combined with fiber delays to multiplex an additional four-channel dataset in the time domain, all of which are recorded onto the same digitizer input. This means that each digitizer input records data from eight separate spatial points, so that a single 4-input digitizer may record a total of 32 channels of data. Motivation for development of a multiplexed PDV was driven by requirements for an economical, high-fidelity, high channel-count optical velocimetry system. We present a survey of the methods, components, and trade-offs incorporated into this recent development in optical velocimetry.

Damage initiation and evolution, failure, and recollection processes under axisymmetric convergence were studied in the Russian-Damage experimental series, a joint effort between the Los Alamos National Laboratory and the All-Russian Institute of Experimental Physics. A helical explosive magnetic generator was used to drive a cylindrical liner shell to produce shock wave loading of a concentric cylindrical target shell. Shock wave amplitude was controlled by the liner-to-target spacing and by the magnetic field amplitude. Variation of the current pulse duration produced either a single impact, to study damage initiation through failure, or a double impact, to study failure with recollection. Both full and partial recollection of the main crack was obtained. By fielding high-precision diagnostics to measure the dynamic drive conditions and material response and by employing post-shot metallographic analysis, this project produced well-characterized experimental data across a range of damage and recollection levels for the chosen material, aluminum. We present selected experimental results to illustrate the methodology and utility of this experimental technique.

We report the measurement of the surface motion of a hemispherical copper shell driven by high explosives. This measurement was made using three 32 channel multiplexed photonic Doppler velocimetry (PDV) systems, in combination with a novel compound optical probe. Clearly visible are detailed features of the motion of the shell over time, enhanced by spatial correlation. Significant non-normal motion is apparent, and challenges in measuring such a geometry are discussed.

Dynamic reflectance and radiancemeasurements were conducted for tin samples shock compressed to 35 GPa and released to 15 GPa using high explosives. We determined the reflectance of the tin samples glued to lithium fluoride windows using an integrating sphere with an internal xenon flashlamp as an illumination source. The dynamic reflectance (R) was determined at near normal incidence in four spectralbands with coverage in visible and near-infrared spectra.Uncertainties in R/R0 are <2%, and uncertainties in absolute reflectance are<5%. In complementary experiments, thermal radiance from the tin/glue/lithium fluoride interface was recorded with similar shock stress and spectral coverage as the reflectance measurements. The two sets of experiments were combined to obtain the temperature history of the tin surface with an uncertainty of <2%. The stress at the interface was determined from photonic Doppler velocimetry and combined with the temperatures to obtain temperature-stress release paths for tin. We discuss the relationship between the experimental release paths and release isentropes that begin on the principal shock Hugoniot.

Explosively driven shock wave experiments were conducted to characterize the spall strength and ejecta production of high-purity cast gold samples. The samples were from 0.75 to 1.84 mm thick and 30 mm in diameter. Peak stresses up to 44 GPa in gold were generated using PBX-9501 high explosive. Sample free surface and ejecta velocities were recorded using photonic Doppler velocimetry techniques. Lithium niobate pins were used to quantify the time dependence of the ejecta density and the total ejected mass. An optical framing camera for time-resolved imaging and a single-image x-ray radiograph were used for additional characterization. Free surface velocities exhibited a range of spall strengths from 1.7 to 2.4 GPa (mean: 2.0 ±0.3 GPa). The pullback signals were faint, minimal ringing was observed in the velocity records, and the spall layer continued to decelerate after first pull back. These results suggest finite tensile strength was present for some time after the initial void formation. Ejecta were observed for every sample with a roughened free surface, and the ejecta density increased with increased surface roughness, which was different in every experiment. The total ejected mass is consistent with the missing mass model.

Light emitted from a [100] lithium fluoride crystal was characterized under shock wave compression to 28 GPa followed by complete stress release at the edges. The light was examined using time-gated optical spectrometry and imaging, time-resolved optical emission measurements, and hydrodynamic modeling. The shock arrival at the circumference of the crystal was delayed relative to the center so that the two regions could be studied at different times. The majority of the light emission originated when the shock waves released at the circumference of the crystal. Unlike previously reported results for shocked lithium fluoride, we found that the light spectrum is not strictly broad band, but has spectral lines associated with atomic lithium in addition to a broad band background. Also, the emission spectrum depends strongly on the gas surrounding the sample. Based on our observations, the line emission appears to be related to fracture of the lithium fluoride crystal from the shock wave releasing at the edges. Experimenters frequently utilize lithium fluoride crystals as transparent windows for observing shock compressed samples. Because of the experimental geometries used, the shock wave in such cases often reaches the circumference of the window at nearly the same moment as when it reaches the center of the sample-window interface. Light generated at the circumference could contaminate the measurement at the interface when this light scatters into the observed region. This background light may be reduced or avoided using experimental geometries which delay the arrival of the shock wave at the edges of the crystal.

Gigahertz (GHz) imaging technology will be needed at high-luminosity X-ray and charged particle sources. It is plausible to combine fast scintillators with the latest picosecond detectors and GHz electronics for multi-frame hard Xray imaging and achieve an inter-frame time of less than 10 ns. The time responses and light yield of LYSO, LaBr3, BaF2 and ZnO are measured using an MCP-PMT detector. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is an attractive material for fast hard X-ray imaging based on GEANT4 simulations and previous studies, but the measured light yield from the samples is much lower than expected.

We present here the first dynamic Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) strength measurement of a material undergoing solid-solid phase transition. Iron is quasi-isentropically driven across the pressure-induced bcc ({alpha}-Fe) {yields} hcp ({var_epsilon}-Fe) phase transition and the dynamic strength of the {alpha}, {var_epsilon} and reverted {alpha}{prime} phases have been determined via proton radiography of the resulting Rayleigh-Taylor unstable interface between the iron target and high-explosive products. Simultaneous velocimetry measurements of the iron free surface yield the phase transition dynamics and, in conjunction with detailed hydrodynamic simulations, allow for determination of the strength of the distinct phases of iron. Forward analysis of the experiment via hydrodynamic simulations reveals significant strength enhancement of the dynamically-generated {var_epsilon}-Fe and reverted {alpha}{prime}-Fe, comparable in magnitude to the strength of austenitic stainless steels.