From 2001–2018, a series of fuel reduction and ecosystem restoration treatments were implemented in the southern Appalachian Mountains near Asheville, North Carolina, USA. Treatments consisted of prescribed fire (four burns), mechanical cutting of understory shrubs and mid-story trees (two cuttings), and a combination of both cutting and prescribed fire (two cuts + four burns). Soils were sampled in 2018 to determine potential treatment impacts for O horizon and mineral soil (0–10 cm depth) carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) and mineral soil calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and pH. Results suggested that mean changes in O horizon C and N and mineral soil C, N, C:N, Ca, and P from 2001–2018 differed between the treatments, but only mineral soil C, N, C:N and Ca displayed differences between at least one fuel reduction treatment and the untreated control. One soils-related restoration objective was mineral soil N reduction and the cut + burn treatment best achieved this result. Increased organic matter recalcitrance was another priority, but this was not obtained with any treatment. When paired with previously reported fuels and vegetation results from this site, it appeared that continued use of the cut + burn treatment may best achieve long-term management objectives for this site and other locations being managed for similar long-term restoration and fuels management objectives.

Thinning and burning can restore imperilled oak woodlands and savannas in the Southern Appalachian and Central Hardwood regions of the USA, but concomitant effects on fuels are less understood. We monitored (2008 to 2016) fuel load response to replicated combinations of thinning (none, 7, and 14m2ha−1 residual basal area) and seasonal fire (none, March, and October) at three sites. All treatments except burn-only increased total fuel loading. Thinning doubled (+16Mgha−1) 1000-h fuels relative to controls, and three fires in 6 years did not eliminate this difference. Increasing thinning intensity did not consistently enhance the combustion of larger fuels. October fires reduced 100- and 10-h fuels more than March fires. Burning alone reduced leaf litter and 1-h twigs by 30%. Burning after thinning doubled this reduction but increased herbaceous fuels 19-fold. Herbaceous fuels increased at a rate that suggests compensation for losses in woody fine fuels with continued burning. Where fuel reduction is a goal, restoration strategies could be more intentionally designed; however, oak woodlands and savannas are inherently more flammable than closed-canopy forests. Management decisions will ultimately involve weighing the risks associated with increased fuel loads against the benefits of restoring open oak communities.

Forest restoration, fuel reduction, and wildlife conservation management requires understanding if, and how repeated prescribed fire, fire severity, or mechanical methods can promote goals. We examined breeding bird response to repeated fuel reduction treatments by mechanical understory reduction (twice; Mechanical-only), prescribed burning (four times; Burn-only), or mechanical understory reduction plus burning (then three subsequent burns; Mechanical + Burn). Initial burns were hotter in Mechanical + Burn than Burn-only resulting in heavy tree mortality, canopy openness, thick shrub density, and abundant snags lasting several years. Relative density and species richness of birds increased in Mechanical + Burn within three breeding seasons of high severity burns, and remained greater throughout subsequent burn. Increases were due to an influx of species associated with young forest conditions, with little change in most mature forest species. Repeated burning in Mechanical + Burn likely impeded forest maturation, allowing many scrub-shrub bird species to persist. Species richness in Burn-only did not differ from any treatment, but modest increases over time were apparent as structural heterogeneity increased with delayed tree mortality. Cavity-nester density was highest in Mechanical + Burn, but remained high even as snags fell to pretreatment levels. Ground-nester density was lower in Mechanical + Burn than Control and Mechanical-only, but ground-nesting species responded differently. Open woodlands were not created by any treatment due to persistent re-sprouting of top-killed trees and shrubs. We note that breeding birds appear to respond similarly to high-severity burns and silvicultural treatments with heavy canopy reduction, offering possible alternatives in managing upland hardwood forests for diverse breeding bird communities.

Mesophication has reduced fuel-bed flammability in the Mid-Southern US, limiting the effectiveness of fire alone in promoting disturbance-adapted woody species. We applied combinations of thinning (none, 7, and 14 m2 ha–1 residual basal area) and seasonal fire (none, October, and March) at three sites and monitored understory woody response from 2008 to 2016. In combination, thinning and burning had strong negative effects on some mesophytic species (Pinus strobus, Ostrya virginiana, and Fagus grandifolia) and positively affected many shade-intolerant and fire-tolerant species formerly suppressed under closed canopies. Such compositional shifts were greatest at our most xeric site, and were related to treatment effects on overstory and midstory density. Seedling density of Quercus spp. nearly doubled (+2,256 stems ha–1) from pre- to postmanagement. Sapling response was less dramatic; however, indicator and ordination analyses often associated mesophytic and disturbance-dependent saplings with unmanaged and managed treatments, respectively. Fire-season effects were subtle, but more species and greater understory densities were associated with March relative to October burning. Although some mesophytic species (Acer rubrum and Liriodendron tulipifera) responded positively to thinning and resprouted aggressively after fire, our results demonstrate how thinning and burning can initiate the reversal of mesophication’s effects on understory woody vegetation.

ABSTRACTFuel reduction treatments are used to reduce wildfire risk and to restore plant communities. Yet, repeated mechanical or prescribed fire treatments may gradually change forest structure and microhabitat conditions, favoring some taxa and decreasing suitability for others. We experimentally assessed long‐term (intermittent years, 2003–2016) effects of repeated dormant‐season mechanical and prescribed fire treatments on capture rates of reptiles and amphibians in southern Appalachian upland hardwood forests. Treatments were mechanical understory removal (twice), prescribed burning (4 times; burn‐only), mechanical understory removal followed 1 year later by high‐severity prescribed burns and 3 subsequent burns (mechanical + burn), and untreated controls. Initial burns were hotter in mechanical + burn than burn‐only units, resulting in heavy tree mortality and increased canopy openness within 2 growing‐seasons post‐burn. We captured 4,606 individuals of 15 amphibian and 20 reptile species. Capture rates of American toads (Anaxyrus americanus), green frogs (Lithobates clamitans), plethodontid salamanders (Plethodon spp.), and northern red salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber) were not affected by any fuel reduction treatment. The capture rate of five‐lined skinks (Plestiodon fasciatus) was greater in mechanical + burn than burn‐only or control units, and the capture rate of eastern fence lizards (Sceloporus undulatus) was greater in mechanical + burn than control units. Juvenile eastern fence lizard captures were greater in mechanical + burn units and increased over time, indicating that high‐severity burning followed by repeated burns may improve conditions for successful recruitment. Different responses among species highlight the importance of including multiple taxa when assessing effects of forest disturbances on wildlife, and give perspective on how forest health may vary depending on target taxa. © 2017 The Wildlife Society.

Macroarthropods rarely are considered in forest management decisions, despite their ecological importance as decomposers, herbivores, pollinators, predators, and nutrient cyclers, and potential of some taxa as indicators of forest condition.We used a replicated design to experimentally determine if, and how, community composition, richness, and biomass of terrestrial macroarthropods differed between recent shelterwood harvests and unharvested controls in an intermediate quality upland hardwood forest.Richness of orders or families did not differ between treatments.Abundance and dry biomass of total macroarthropods and most orders or families were unaffected by shelterwood harvests despite substantial post-harvest reductions in tree density, canopy cover, and leaf litter cover and depth, at least in the short term.Among taxa, abundance and dry biomass of Opiliones (all Phalangiidae) and Lepidoptera (mostly larvae) were greater in shelterwoods than controls, whereas abundance and dry biomass of Orthoptera (predominantly Rhaphidophoridae) were greater in controls.Our results suggest that use of ground-dwelling macroarthropod taxa as indicators of forest disturbance be tempered with consideration of other site-related factors potentially affecting forest floor conditions and activity-abundance of macroarthropods, such as forest type, site quality, elevation, topographic position, and weather.

Fire and resource managers of the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA, have many questions about the use of prescribed fire and mechanical treatments to meet various land management objectives. Three common objectives include restoration to an open woodland, oak regeneration, and fuel reduction. This paper provides information about reaching each of these three management objectives by using prescribed burning (B), mechanical fuel reduction (M), and a combination of both fire and mechanical treatment (MB). The southern Appalachian site of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study has been burned three times and a mechanical treatment has been conducted twice since 2002. Stand structure was changed by each active treatment but restoration to an open woodland was not achieved by any. The MB treatment units developed the desired overstory structure but heavy sprouting of woody species in the understory prevented the establishment of a diverse herbaceous forest floor. Oak reproduction was increased by all active treatments, largely by sprouting of top-killed stems. The degree of fuel reduction differed by treatment. All treatments reduced the shrub layer, thus reducing the vertical fuel component. The B and MB treatments reduced most fuels and likely reduced the severity of a subsequent wildfire. We conclude that additional burning is required to meet each management objective, and that fires should be conducted more frequently, in different seasons, or in combination with other treatments.

Forest restoration efforts commonly employ silvicultural methods that alter light and competition to influence species composition. Changes to forest structure and microclimate may adversely affect some taxa (e.g., terrestrial salamanders), but positively affect others (e.g., early successional birds). Salamanders are cited as indicators of ecosystem health because of their sensitivity to forest floor micro climate. We used drift fences with pitfall and funnel traps in a replicated Before-After-Control-Impact design to experimentally assess herpetofaunal community response to initial application of three silvicultural methods proposed to promote oak regeneration: prescribed burning; midstory herbicide; and shelterwood harvests (initial treatment of the shelterwood-bum method) and controls, before and for five years post-treatment. Species richness of all herpetofauna, amphibians, reptiles, frogs, salamanders, or snakes was unaffected by any treatment, but lizard species richness increased in the shelterwood harvest. Capture rate of total salamanders decreased post-harvest in shelterwood units after a 2-3 year delay; Plethodon teyahalee decreased post-harvest in shelterwoods, but also in control units. In contrast, capture rate of total lizards and Plestiodon fasciatus increased in shelterwood stands within the first year post-harvest. Prescribed burn and midstory herbicide treatments did not affect any reptile or amphibian species. A marginally lower proportion of juvenile to adult P. teyahalee, and a higher proportion of juvenile P. fasciatus in shelterwood than control units suggested that heavy canopy removal and associated change in microclimate may differentially affect reproductive success among species. Our study illustrates the importance of longer-term studies to detect potential changes in herpetofaunal communities that may not be immediately apparent after disturbances, and highlights the importance of including multiple taxa for a balanced perspective when weighing impacts of forest management activities. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Salamanders are an important ecological component of eastern hardwood forests and may be affected by natural or silvicultural disturbances that alter habitat structure and associated microclimate. From May to August in 2008 (pretreatment) and 2011 (post‐treatment), we evaluated the response of salamanders to three silvicultural practices designed to promote oak regeneration — prescribed fire, midstory herbicide application and shelterwood harvest — and a control. We trapped salamanders using drift fences with pitfall traps in five replicates of the four treatments. Only the southern gray‐cheeked salamander Plethodon metcalfi and the southern Appalachian salamander P. teyahalee were captured in sufficient numbers for robust statistical analysis. We analyzed data for these species using single‐species dynamic occupancy models in statistical software program R. We allowed changes in four covariates to influence extinction probability from pre‐ to post‐treatment implementation: 1) percent leaf litter cover; 2) percent understory cover; 3) percent CWD cover; and 4) percent canopy cover. The final combined model set describing extinction probability contained four models with ΔAIC < 2 for P. metcalfi and nine models with ΔAIC < 2, including the null model, for P. teyahalee. For both species, the 95% confidence intervals for model‐averaged extinction probability parameter estimates overlapped zero, suggesting none were significant predictors of extinction probability. Absence of short‐term salamander response in midstory herbicide and prescribed burn treatments was likely because of minor or transitory changes to forest structure. In shelterwood harvests, any potential effects of reduced canopy and leaf litter cover may have been mitigated by rapid post‐treatment vegetation sprouting. Additionally, climatic conditions associated with high elevation sites and high amounts of rainfall in 2011 may have compensated for potential changes to microclimate. Continued monitoring of Plethodon salamanders to assess responses at longer time scales (e.g. > 3 years post‐treatment) is warranted.

Population declines of several successional-scrub bird species are partly associated with decreased habitat availability as abandoned farmlands return to forest and recently harvested forests regrow. Restoration of mixed-oak (Quercus spp.) forest is also a concern because of widespread oak regeneration failure, especially on moist, productive sites where competition from faster-growing tree species is fierce following stand-replacing disturbances. Several silvicultural methods are proposed to promote oak regeneration but many are not experimentally tested, especially on productive sites. We surveyed birds in 19 stands to assess response to initial application of three proposed oak regeneration treatments on productive sites: prescribed burning (B); oak shelterwood by midstory herbicide (OSW); shelterwood harvests (SW); and controls (C), for one breeding season before, and two breeding seasons after, implementation. Relative density of successional-scrub species Indigo Buntings (Passerina cyanea), Eastern Towhees (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), and Chestnut-sided Warblers (Setophaga pensylvanica) increased, while Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla) decreased within 11 to 18 months after SW harvests; understory disturbance treatments B or OSW had no effect. Our results indicated that partial harvests created habitat for breeding birds associated with both young and mature forests, whereas understory treatments had little effect. Additionally, we show that even small patches of young forest habitat are used by more individuals and more species of breeding birds than surrounding closed-canopy forest, and may benefit successional-scrub species by enabling their occurrence in an otherwise forested landscape. Absence of several lower-elevation successional-scrub bird species in our mid-elevation SW harvests suggests that comprehensive conservation in the southern Appalachians necessitates creating and maintaining young forest habitats across elevation gradients.

Prescribed burning is a common management tool for upland hardwood forests, with wildlife habitat improvement an often cited goal. Fire management for wildlife conservation requires understanding how species respond to burning at different frequencies, severities, and over time. In an earlier study, we experimentally assessed how breeding bird communities and species responded to fuel reduction treatments by mechanical understory reduction, low-severity prescribed fires, or mechanical understory reduction followed a year later by high-severity prescribed fires in upland hardwood forest. Here, we assess longer-term response to the initial mechanical treatment (M), and a second low-intensity burn in twice burned (B2) and mechanical + twice burned (MB2) treatments and controls (C). Initial (2003) higher dead fuel loadings and consequently high-severity fires in MB2 created open-canopy structure with abundant snags, resulting in much higher species richness and density of breeding birds compared to other treatments. Relative bird density and richness remained much higher in MB2 after a second burn, but few changes were evident that were not already apparent after one burn. The initial (2003) burn in B2 had cooler, low-severity fires that killed few trees. Delayed tree mortality occurred in both burn treatments after one burn, and continued in both after a second low-intensity burn. In B2, this resulted in gradual development of a "perforated," patchy canopy structure with more snags. Abundance of total birds and most species in B2 was similar to C, but several additional species associated with open-forest conditions occurred at low levels, increasing richness in B2. In both burn treatments, burning temporarily reduced habitat suitability for ground-nesting birds. Bird communities in M were similar to C, as shrubs recovered rapidly. Results indicate that one or two relatively low-intensity burns with patches of hotter fire may result in gradual, subtle changes to canopy cover and structure that may slightly increase bird species richness over time. In contrast, a single high-intensity, high severity fire can create young forest conditions and a heterogeneous canopy structure that can be maintained by repeated burning and increase breeding bird relative abundance and richness by attracting disturbance-adapted species while retaining most other forest species. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Upland, mixed-oak forests in the eastern United States have experienced widespread oak regeneration failure, largely due to cessation of anthropogenic disturbance. Silvicultural practices used to promote advance oak regeneration may affect ground-dwelling mammals. From May to August 2008 (pre-treatment), 2010 (first year post-treatment), and 2011 (second year post-treatment), we trapped small mammals to assess changes in species richness and abundance following experimental tests of three silvicultural treatments (prescribed burns, midstory herbicide applications, and shelterwood harvests) used to promote oak regeneration. We trapped small mammals in five replicates of each treatment and controls using Sherman live traps (2008 and 2010) and drift fences (2008, 2010, and 2011). From pre- to post-treatment, we evaluated the change in estimated peromyscid abundance and relative abundance of masked shrews (Sorex cinereus), smoky shrews (Sorex fumeus), and northern short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda). Additionally, we evaluated the change in species richness across treatments for both sampling techniques. For all measures analyzed (i.e., species richness, peromyscid abundance, and relative abundance of shrews), the change from pre- to post-treatment did not differ among treatments. However, more masked shrews, smoky shrews, and northern short-tailed shrews were captured in 2011 (i.e., second year post-treatment) than in 2010 (i.e., first year post-treatment). Our research indicates that, in the short-term, small mammals (e.g., mice and shrews) can tolerate a wide range of forest disturbance following oak regeneration treatments. However, delayed treatment effects (e.g., additional post-herbicide midstory dieback) or additive changes following future treatments (e.g., prescribed burns following shelterwood harvests or multiple prescribed burns) may compound effects on small mammal populations, and should be assessed with long-term research (> 2 years post-treatment). (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Restoration of structure and function of mixed-oak (Quercus spp.) forests is a focal issue of forest land managers in the eastern United States due to widespread regeneration failure and poor overstory recruitment of oaks, particularly on productive sites. Prescribed fire is increasingly used as a tool in oak ecosystem restoration, with the goal of reducing competition, and creating light and seedbed conditions conducive to germination and growth of oak seedlings. Yet, oak seedling establishment is dependent on the presence of viable acorns, which may be vulnerable to prescribed fire. We assessed the effect of prescribed burning and fire temperature on the viability of white oak and northern red oak acorns placed on the leaf litter surface, in the duff, or in the mineral soil during five winter prescribed burns in southern Appalachian upland hardwood forests. Fire temperatures varied among acorn plots, ranging from <79 to <371 degrees C. After the burns, acorns were planted in trays with water-saturated vermiculite, exposed to 14 continuous hours of light daily, and maintained at 27 degrees C on germination beds in a greenhouse. After three weeks we recorded the proportion of acorns germinating and the proportion of germinants with shoots. Our study indicated that patchy, low-intensity dormant season prescribed fire in upland hardwood forests reduced viability of white oak and northern red oak acorns located on the leaf litter surface, but did not generally affect acorns in the duff or mineral soil. Germination rates of both northern red oak and white oak acorns on the leaf litter surface decreased with increasing fire temperature. Shoot production by northern red oak germinants from acorns on the leaf litter surface (and less so in the duff), also decreased with increasing fire temperature. Acorns of both species on the leaf litter surface burned at temperatures >= 204 degrees C showed high mortality levels, with mortality virtually 100% at temperatures >= 260 degrees C. Fall burns, especially after a heavy acorn crop, could result in high acorn mortality, potentially impacting oak regeneration from seedlings for many years given erratic acorn production patterns among years and species. Frequent burning that reduces litter and duff depth could compromise availability of 'safe sites' where acorns are insulated from high fire temperatures. When oak ecosystem restoration is a goal, land managers should consider the timing and size of acorn crops, as well as the forest floor condition when determining the timing and frequency of prescribed burning. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

This study characterizes the seed bank prior to and immediately following dormant-season prescribed fire in mature, mixed-Quercus spp. (oak) forests in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Thirty samples from the litter/duff (LD) and the top 5 cm of the mineral soil (MS) were collected from five 5-ha burn units (6 plots per experimental unit) before and immediately after low-intensity prescribed fires, where maximum fire temperatures varied from <79 to 316 degrees C. A split-plot ANOVA and multi-response permutation procedures (MRBP) were utilized to assess the effects of burn treatment (pre- or post-fire) and seed bank layer (LD and MS) on the diversity and density of the buried seed bank. An average of 471 emergents/m(2) was observed in the buried seed bank comprising 133 identifiable taxa. No differences in total seed-bank density, Shannon-Weiner's diversity index (H'), or overall species composition between pre- and post-fire sampling or between the LD and MS layers were observed. Species richness (S) of the seed bank, however, was slightly greater pre-fire than post-fire, regardless of layer. Similarity, as defined by Sorenson's index, of species common to the seed bank and aboveground forest understory was low, with a slight increase in Sorenson's index observed during post-fire sampling of the seed bank and aboveground vegetation. Although we observed only negligible effects of a once-applied, low-intensity prescribed fire on the buried seed bank, the effects of a low-intensity prescribed fire management regime-one that involves repeated low intensity burns-on the buried seed bank are unknown and should be a focus of future studies across mixed-oak forests in the eastern US.

This study tested the success of fuel reduction treatments for mitigating wildfire behavior in an area that has had little previous research on fire, the southern Appalachian Mountains. A secondary objective of treatments was to restore the community to an open woodland condition. Three blocks of four treatments were installed in a mature hardwood forest in western North Carolina. Fuel reduction treatments included chainsaw felling of small trees and shrubs (mechanical treatment), two prescribed fires 3 years apart, a combination of mechanical and burning treatments, and an untreated control. Mechanical treatment eliminated vertical fuels but without prescribed burning; the mechanical treatment added litter (11

We compared the effects of 3 fuel reduction techniques and a control on breeding birds during 2001-2005 using 50-m point counts. Four experimental units, each >14 ha, were contained within each of 3 replicate blocks at the Green River Game Land, Polk County, North Carolina, USA. Treatments were 1) prescribed burn, 2) mechanical understory reduction (chainsaw-felling of shrubs and small trees), 3) mechanical + burn, and 4) controls. We conducted mechanical treatments in winter 2001-2002 and prescribed burns in spring 2003. Tall shrub cover was substantially reduced in all treatments compared to controls. Tree mortality and canopy openness was highest in the mechanical + burn treatment after burning, likely due to higher fuel loading and hotter burns; tree mortality increased with time. Many bird species did not detectably decrease or increase in response to treatments. Species richness, total bird density, and some species, including indigo buntings (Passerina cyanea) and eastern bluebirds (Sialia sialis), increased in the mechanical + burn treatment after a 1-year to 2-year delay; eastern wood-pewees (Contopus virens) increased immediately after treatment. Hooded warblers (Wilsonia citrina), black-and-white warblers (Mniotilta varia), and worm-eating warblers (Helmitheros vermivorus) declined temporarily in some or all treatments, likely in response to understory and (or) leaf litter depth reductions. Densities of most species affected by treatments varied with shrub cover, tree or snag density, or leaf litter depth. High snag availability, open conditions, and a higher density of flying insects in the mechanical + burn treatment likely contributed to increased bird density and species richness. In our study, fuel reduction treatments that left the canopy intact, such as low-intensity prescribed fire or mechanical understory removal, had few detectable effects on breeding birds compared to the mechanical + burn treatment. High-intensity burning with heavy tree-kill, as occurred in our mechanical + burn treatment, can be used as a management tool to increase densities of birds associated with open habitat while retaining many forest and generalist species, but may have short-term adverse effects on some species that are associated with the ground- or shrub-strata for nesting and foraging.

In the past, fires set by American Indians and settlers shaped much of the southern Appalachian forest by reducing the shrub layer and maintaining an open understory. Since the 1930’s, fire exclusion has allowed the development of a thick shrub layer and accumulation of woody debris. This fuel buildup contributes to the potential for wildfire in many ecosystems. Recently, the need for fuel reduction, using techniques such as prescribed fire or mechanical treatments, has received national attention. However, the impacts of such habitat manipulations on breeding birds are not well understood, especially in southern hardwood ecosystems. As part of the multidisciplinary National Fire and Fire Surrogate Research Project, we compared the effects of three fuel reduction techniques and controls on breeding birds, using 50m point counts in four, 14-ha treatments within each of three replicate blocks at the Green River Game Land, Polk County, North Carolina. Treatments were: (1) prescribed burning (B), (2) mechanical felling of shrubs and small trees (M), (3) mechanical felling + burning (MB), and (4) controls (C). Breeding birds were surveyed using point counts during 2001-2004. Mechanical understory felling treatments were conducted in winter 2001-2002, and prescribed burning in spring 2003. Hence, bird responses to all four treatments were compared only for 2003 and 2004. After prescribed fire (2003), leaf litter depth decreased in B and MB, and snag densities and canopy openness increased in MB. Shrub cover was significantly lower in all fuel reduction treatments than in C. Total breeding bird abundance was similar among treatments each year except 2003, when it was higher in C than M. Species richness was similar among treatments except in 2004 when it was higher in MB. Shrub forager abundance was highest in C in 2003, and higher in C than in B during 2004. The abundance of shrub nesters was also lower in B and M than in MB in 2004. Responses were most evident at the species level. Most species showed no detectable response to treatments. During 2003 Worm-eating Warbler abundance was lower in MB than C or M, and, in 2004, it was lower in both B and MB than C or M. Hooded Warblers were more abundant in C than any fuel reduction treatments during 2003 and 2004. Indigo Buntings, which are associated with open habitats, were most abundant in MB during 2004. Fuel reduction treatments affected individual bird species differently, and responses appeared to be associated with changes in habitat structure. To fully understand how fire and fire surrogates for fuel reduction affect breeding bird communities, post-fire surveys of birds and vegetation structure must continue for several years.

Fuel reduction treatments are necessary in fire-adapted ecosystems where fire has been excluded for decades and the potential for severe wildfire is high. Using the Fire Area Simulator, FARSITE, we examined the spatial and temporal effects of these treatments on fire behavior in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. With measurements from temperature sensors during prescribed burns, we recreated the fires and compared fire behavior simulated by FARSITE with observed behavior. Following calibration, we simulated effects of different fuel reduction treatments on fire behavior. This paper assesses the potential use of FARSITE and the effects of fuel reduction treatments on fire behavior for the Southern