Accurate surveys and monitoring are required to guide the conservation and management of threatened species.Some fauna species are cryptic or difficult to observe because they are nocturnal, mimic other species, conceal themselves, or can be incredibly hard to survey.Emergence and activity of these species may be related to complex environmental cues including weather and atmospheric conditions.The conservation status of New Zealand's long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) is Threatened-Nationally Critical.Occurrence and activity of long-tailed bats is commonly monitored with acoustic bat detectors.However, even in locations where long-tailed bats are known to be present, they may only be detected on a subset of nights meaning that detection with acoustic detectors is imperfect.We analysed long-tailed bat detection data collected in Kinleith Forest, central North Island, New Zealand in 2006 and 2007 using zero-inflated generalised linear (mixed) effect models.We found relationships between bat detection and several environmental variables.Results suggest that bat surveys would be most effective at detecting bats when undertaken one to four hours after sunset, on nights when the temperature at sunset is above 8°C, and preferably when the temperature stays in the 8 and 17°C range during the night.Higher humidity and a light breeze may also be a desirable condition for monitoring.A night that is similar to, or slightly warmer, than recent nights may be favourable.Caution should be taken extrapolating these results to elsewhere because bats in other regions may respond differently to temperatures out of necessity.High site-specific variation in bat counts at higher temperatures and humidity occurred with zero activity often recorded.Therefore, we caution against assuming bats are absent because they have not been detected by surveys undertaken during higher temperatures and humidity conditions unless surveys have been run for multiple nights in suitable conditions.

The presence of bat species is commonly determined by placing acoustic bat detectors that record bat echolocation calls in the habitat they are likely to use. Detection rates are affected by variables including type of detection unit used. We compared detection rates of long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) echolocation calls between two types of automated bat detectors: Wildlife Acoustics SMZC Zero Crossing Bat Recorders (ZC), and Frequency Compression Automated Bat Monitoring units (FC) produced by New Zealand's Department of Conservation. Units were placed in locations where bats were known to be present, but not all detected bats. The median number of bat passes recorded by FC units over 10 nights was 20 compared with a median of 3 bat passes for ZC units. ZC units also detected bats over significantly fewer nights than FC units. These results suggest FC units are more sensitive and therefore better to use where long-tailed bats are expected to be at low abundance or only present infrequently. Because of inconsistencies in detection rates, we recommend the use of only one model of the detector within a monitoring project. Our data also suggests that surveys should take place over long periods to maximise likelihood of detecting bats, if present.

Roads and associated land transport activities can affect a wide range of indigenous terrestrial vertebrate species.National legislation, particularly the Resource Management Act 1991, requires that developers 'avoid, remedy or mitigate' the adverse environmental effects of their activities.How these effects are identified and managed in New Zealand varies because regulators and land transport contractors deal with these issues on a case-by-case basis.In recent years, the effects of new road projects on long-tailed bats (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) have been receiving attention.In this review, we summarise evidence on likely road infrastructure impacts on bat populations and the efficacy of mitigation approaches, used both internationally and in New Zealand.Our findings indicate that most mitigation methods have little, if any, scientific evidence of their effectiveness.We recommend that such evidence is essential to guide investment in mitigating road effects on bats in New Zealand.Given that such evidence is rare, future investment should be guided by an adaptive management framework that is justified by strong, inferential, evidence-based logic, and accompanied by robust, appropriately designed monitoring planned, in advance, to allow an objective assessment of a method's effectiveness in mitigating an impact.Because such monitoring may be beyond what a single development project can realistically achieve, we suggest the development of a collaborative funding model for supporting the testing and development of mitigation methods.This work is likely to have a significant influence on the future planning and design of road infrastructure projects to minimise the impacts on bats and, more generally, on any native wildlife populations under threat from infrastructure development.

Despite a growing body of evidence worldwide that bats are affected by roads, there has been little research into the effects of traffic volume on bat activity. In New Zealand, there is considerable uncertainty over whether, or to what extent, roads affect New Zealand's endemic hat populations, and this has resulted in uncertainty during the planning and consent phases of road development projects. This research investigated whether Chalinolobus tuberculatus (long-tailed bat) activity correlates with night-time traffic volume on New Zealand's highways. Bat activity was monitored at 57 traffic monitoring sites throughout New Zealand using pairs of bat detectors, with one placed beside the highway (highway) and one placed >= 200 metres from the highway (distant). Generalised linear mixed effects models were used to investigate the relationship between bat detections, position in relation to the highway, and various measures of traffic volume. The model that best explained the variation in bat detections was the interaction effect between bat detector position (highway, distant) and night-time traffic volume (volume). Outputs from this model show a negative relationship between bat activity and night-time traffic volume for highway bat detector units, while distant bat detector units had no discernible relationship with night-time traffic volume. These results indicate that night-time traffic volume affects the use of roads by bats, i.e. when overnight traffic increased, the probability of detecting bats decreased. Whether or to what extent this will affect the long-term viability of New Zealand's C. tuberculatus populations is a high priority for further investigation.

Stoats (Mustela erminea) were introduced to New Zealand to control rabbits in the 1880s and their impact on native birds has been devastating. Stoat control needs to be ongoing if some iconic species are to survive on the mainland. A re-setting toxin device (Spitfire) has been developed that fires a paste containing para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP) on to the belly of stoats as they pass through a tunnel. When the stoats groom the paste from their fur, they ingest the toxin. A pilot field trial of the device was undertaken in the Blue Mountains, West Otago in late 2013. The probability of detecting stoats using camera traps declined by between 76.6% and 89.8% within 6 weeks following the deployment of the Spitfire; however, by this time, some of the Spitfires had malfunctioned. Spitfires could be a useful additional control tool for stoats, but they need to be re-engineered to be made more durable for field conditions.

Pastoral landscape woody vegetation provides ecosystem services, but potentially competes for space, light and nutrients that could provide additional farm production. A questionnaire determined the values and behaviours of New Zealand dairy farmers to evaluate voluntary agri-environmental programmes for restoring woody vegetation. Findings indicate the area is increasing, while the composition and configuration of networks are changing and redistributing. Farms with little are losing more, and those with more are gaining. Farmers are planting new areas to increase their public ecosystem services, but may not provide these services through planting and management. Barriers include insufficient private woody vegetation ecosystem services, and low rates of growth of native plants. Government incentive programmes are ineffective in overcoming barriers. Farmers may be motivated by stronger evidence of valued ecosystem services, information about their benefits and drawbacks and how to support services through planting and management. However, a targeted environmental stewardship scheme is required to overcome barriers to planting, with government and the dairy industry working together to develop and maintain a landscape-scaled woody vegetation network on private and public land. Such networks would build sustainability and resilience into dairy farming, leading to an equitably sharing of benefits and costs of their public ecosystem services.

Given climate change, species' climatically suitable habitats are increasingly expected to shift poleward. Some imperilled populations towards the poleward edge of their species' range might therefore conceivably benefit from climate change. Interactions between climate and population dynamics may be complex, however, with climate exerting effects both indirectly via influence over food availability and more directly, via effects on physiology and its implications for survival and reproduction. A thorough understanding of these interactions is critical for effective conservation management. We therefore examine the relationship between climate, survival and reproduction in Canadian black-tailed prairie dogs, a threatened keystone species in an imperilled ecosystem at the northern edge of the species' range. Our analyses considered 8 years of annual mark-recapture data (2007-2014) in relation to growing degree days, precipitation, drought status and winter severity, as well as year, sex, age and body mass. Survival was strongly influenced by the interaction of drought and body mass class, and winter temperature severity. Female reproductive status was associated with the interaction of growing degree days and growing season precipitation, with spring precipitation and with winter temperature severity. Results related to body mass suggested that climatic variables exerted their effects via regulation of food availability with potential linked effects of food quality, immunological and behavioural implications, and predation risk. Predictions of future increases in drought conditions in North America's grassland ecosystems have raised concerns for the outlook of Canadian black-tailed prairie dogs. Insights gained from the analyses, however, point to mitigating species management options targeted at decoupling the mechanisms by which climate exerts its negative influence. Our approach highlights the importance of understanding the interaction between climate and population dynamics in peripheral populations whose viability might ultimately determine their species' ability to track climatically suitable space.

Context The ability to monitor the spatial distribution and abundance of species is essential for detecting population changes, and assessing the progress of conservation management programs. Stoats (Mustela erminea) are a serious conservation pest in New Zealand, but current monitoring methods are not sensitive enough to detect stoats in all situations. Aims We compare the effectiveness of the most commonly employed method for monitoring mustelids in New Zealand, footprint-tracking tunnels, with two alternative detection methods, camera traps and artificial nests. We were interested in determining whether alternative detection methods were more sensitive in detecting stoats than tracking tunnels. Methods We established a network of tracking tunnels, artificial nests and camera traps within alpine habitat. Devices were checked for stoat detections weekly across two seasons, in spring–early summer and autumn. Differences in detection rates and cost effectiveness among methods were analysed among seasons. Key results In spring–early summer, the time to first stoat detection using footprint-tracking tunnels was 61 days, compared with 7 days for camera traps and 8 days for artificial nests. The rate of stoat detection using artificial nests was significantly higher than it was using tracking tunnels (coef = 3.05 ± 1.29, P = 0.02), and moderately higher using camera traps (coef = 1.34 ± 1.09, P = 0.22). In autumn, when overall detectability of stoats was higher, there was no significant difference in detection rates among the three methods, although camera traps again recorded the earliest detection. Artificial nests were the most cost effective detection method in both seasons. Conclusions Artificial nests and camera traps were more efficient at detecting stoats during their spring breeding season (when they are known to be difficult to detect), compared with the more established footprint-tracking tunnel method. Artificial nests have potential to be developed into a monitoring index for small mammals, although further research is required. Both methods provide an important alternative to footprint tracking indices for monitoring stoats. Implications Our study demonstrated the importance of calibration among different monitoring methods, particularly when the target species is difficult to detect. We hypothesise that detection methods that do not rely on conspicuous, artificially constructed devices, may be more effective for monitoring small, cryptic mammals.

Invasive species have been identified by the Convention on Biological Diversity as a significant threat to biodiversity. Conservation managers often lack tools for addressing uncertainty about the control intensity required to achieve cost-effective management of invasive species. We describe a modelling approach for informing the spacing of control-device lines given the availability of home-range data. To demonstrate its utility, we used data on stoats (Mustela erminea), an introduced mammalian predator responsible for the decline of endemic birds in New Zealand. We calculated home-range widths using three methods: kernels, circles and the narrowest distance across the raw point data. Using the widths from each method, we then permuted iteratively the relative location and orientation of home ranges between control-device lines, and calculated the probability of encounter with varying distances between lines. Widths across raw points gave lower estimates of the probability of encounter of device lines than kernels, while circles gave estimates that were intermediate between the two. For stoats, the simulation on point-data widths indicates that to ensure control-device lines will intersect 100% of female stoat home ranges they need to be <= 400 m apart, while the simulation on kernels and circles allowed <= 700 m. When needing to address uncertainty about the intensity of control to apply, managers should give priority to the collection of home-range data so that control-line spacing can be determined using the simulation described. If sufficient home-range data are available then simulating kernels provides better predictions, otherwise simulating the width across point data provides a conservative option when such data are insufficient.

Cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Rotoiti have been linked to nutrient flows from Lake Rotorua via the Ohau Channel. To mitigate this, a diversion wall was constructed in 2008 that was designed to redirect water entering Lake Rotoiti from Lake Rotorua into the Kaituna River. One concern was whether the presence of the diversion wall might have adverse impacts on the abundance of birds using the lake. Monthly bird counts were undertaken at 8 sites in Lake Rotoiti, over 8 years, and which spanned the period before, during and after construction of the wall. Generalised linear mixed effect models and AIC were used to investigate any effects of the wall on 6 bird species. There was no apparent impact of the wall on 5 of the species. The sixth species, little black shag (Phalacrocorax melanoleucos), was more abundant in sites surrounding the wall post-construction, and appeared to be using the wall for roosting and to hunt for smelt.

A detailed understanding of the population dynamics of many amphibian species is lacking despite concerns about declining amphibian biodiversity and abundance. This paper explores temporal patterns of occupancy and underlying extinction and colonization dynamics in a regionally imperiled amphibian species, the Northern leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens) in Alberta. Our study contributes to elucidating regional occupancy dynamics at northern latitudes, where climate extremes likely have a profound effect on seasonal occupancy. The primary advantage of our study is its wide geographic scale (60,000 km2) and the use of repeat visual surveys each spring and summer from 2009-2013. We find that occupancy varied more dramatically between seasons than years, with low spring and higher summer occupancy. Between spring and summer, colonization was high and extinction low; inversely, colonization was low and extinction high over the winter. The dynamics of extinction and colonization are complex, making conservation management challenging. Our results reveal that Northern leopard frog occupancy was constant over the last five years and thus there is no evidence of decline or recovery within our study area. Changes to equilibrium occupancy are most sensitive to increasing colonization in the spring or declining extinction in the summer. Therefore, conservation and management efforts should target actions that are likely to increase spring colonization; this could be achieved through translocations or improving the quality or access to breeding habitat. Because summer occupancy is already high, it may be difficult to improve further. Nevertheless, summer extinction could be reduced by predator control, increasing water quality or hydroperiod of wetlands, or increasing the quality or quantity of summer habitat.

BACKGROUNDInvasive mammalian pests have inflicted substantial environmental and economic damage on a worldwide scale.RESULTSOver the last 30 years there has been minimal innovation in the development of new control tools. The development of new vertebrate pesticides, for example, has been largely restricted due to the costly and time-consuming processes associated with testing and registration.CONCLUSIONIn this article we discuss recent progress and trends in a number of areas of research aimed to achieve long-term population suppression or eradication of mammalian pest species. The examples discussed here are emerging from research being conducted in New Zealand, where invasive mammalian pests are one of the greatest threats facing the national environment and economy. (c) 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

Amphibians are declining and require improved monitoring to overcome data deficiency and to improve population estimation. To improve monitoring of two anurans in the prairie province of Alberta, Canada, we conducted repeat daytime surveys at 68 aquatic sites across 90,000 km(2). We used single-and multi-season occupancy models to evaluate covariates of detection probability (p) for Northern Leopard Frogs (Lithobates pipiens) and Boreal Chorus Frogs (Pseudacris maculata). Single surveys did not perform well in any season for either species. The principal method for detecting Northern Leopard Frogs was visual sightings in summer; Boreal Chorus Frogs were best detected by their breeding calls in spring. Northern Leopard Frog's p correlated with temperature (+) and wind (-) and was highest in summer. Boreal Chorus Frog probability of detection correlated with temperature (+), observer (-), and visual obstruction (-), and was highest in spring. Therefore, daytime surveys will be more effective for Northern Leopard Frogs in summer and for Boreal Chorus Frogs in spring. Whereas multi-species surveys often yield important information on amphibians, our study suggests species-specific surveys that quantify and maximize detection probability can improve the collection of data for conservation of threatened species.

Understanding limiting factors affecting population growth for imperilled species is crucial for conservation and management. This research investigates whether black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludoyicianus) populations are food limited on their northernmost range extent. We measured background vegetation rates and used food supplementation in a 'before-after-control-impact' (BACI) design to test whether increased food positively impacted prairie dog population density and colony expansion. Experimental results did not support food limitation. Overall, density increased from 2008 to 2009 but remained relatively similar between control and treatment plots. Correlations between natural, non-supplemented vegetation biomass and prairie dog density suggest that natural food availability in 2008 may have driven population growth into 2009. Natural food availability was highly variable among years and prairie dog densities may be impacted by food scarcity in some years but not others. Colony spatial expansion was greater in the absence of food supplementation, suggesting food scarcity may drive colony expansion. This research has important implications for the conservation and management of prairie dogs and species that depend on them such as reintroduced black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) in Canada and other populations across their range. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The success of research in integrated environmental and natural resource management relies on the participation and involvement of different disciplines and stakeholders. This can be difficult to achieve in practice because many initiatives fail to address the underlying social processes required for successful engagement and social learning. We used an action research approach to support a research-based group with a range of disciplinary and stakeholder expertise to critically reflect on their engagement practice and identify lessons around how to collaborate more effectively. This approach is provided here as a guide that can be used to support reflective research practice for engagement in other integration-based initiatives. This paper is set in the context of an integrated wildlife management research case study in New Zealand. We illustrate how multi-, inter- and trans-disciplinary approaches can provide a framework for considering the different conversations that need to occur in an integrated research program. We then outline rubrics that list the criteria required in inter- and trans-disciplinary collaborations, along with examples of effective engagement processes that directly support integration through such efforts. Finally, we discuss the implications of these experiences for other researchers and managers seeking to improve engagement and collaboration in integrated science, management and policy initiatives. Our experiences reaffirm the need for those involved in integrative initiatives to attend to the processes of engagement in both formal and informal settings, to provide opportunities for critical reflective practice, and to look for measures of success that acknowledge the importance of effective social process.

Abstract Worldwide, approximately 168 bird species are captive‐bred for reintroduction into the wild. Programs tend to be initiated for species with a high level of endangerment. Depressed hatching success can be a problem for such programs and has been linked to artificial incubation. The need for artificial incubation is driven by the practice of multiclutching to increase egg production or by uncertainty over the incubation abilities of captive birds. There has been little attempt to determine how artificial incubation differs from bird‐contact incubation. We describe a novel archive (data‐logger) egg and use it to compare temperature, humidity, and egg‐turning in 5 whooping crane (Grus americana) nests, 4 sandhill crane (G. canadensis) nests, and 3 models of artificial incubator; each of which are used to incubate eggs in whooping crane captive‐breeding programs. Mean incubation temperature was 31.7° C for whooping cranes and 32.83° C for sandhill cranes. This is well below that of the artificial incubators (which were set based on a protocol of 37.6° C). Humidity in crane nests varied considerably, but median humidity in all 3 artificial incubators was substantially different from that in the crane nests. Two artificial incubators failed to turn the eggs in a way that mimicked crane egg‐turning. Archive eggs are an effective tool for guiding the management of avian conservation breeding programs, and can be custom‐made for other species. They also have potential to be applied to research on wild populations. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Captive breeding is key to management of severely endangered species, but maximizing captive production can be challenging because of poor knowledge of species breeding biology and the complexity of evaluating different management options. In the face of uncertainty and complexity, decision-analytic approaches can be used to identify optimal management options for maximizing captive production. Building decision-analytic models requires iterations of model conception, data analysis, model building and evaluation, identification of remaining uncertainty, further research and monitoring to reduce uncertainty, and integration of new data into the model. We initiated such a process to maximize captive production of the whooping crane (Grus americana), the world's most endangered crane, which is managed through captive breeding and reintroduction. We collected 15 years of captive breeding data from 3 institutions and used Bayesian analysis and model selection to identify predictors of whooping crane hatching success. The strongest predictor, and that with clear management relevance, was incubation environment. The incubation period of whooping crane eggs is split across two environments: crane nests and artificial incubators. Although artificial incubators are useful for allowing breeding pairs to produce multiple clutches, our results indicate that crane incubation is most effective at promoting hatching success. Hatching probability increased the longer an egg spent in a crane nest, from 40% hatching probability for eggs receiving 1 day of crane incubation to 95% for those receiving 30 days (time incubated in each environment varied independently of total incubation period). Because birds will lay fewer eggs when they are incubating longer, a tradeoff exists between the number of clutches produced and egg hatching probability. We developed a decision-analytic model that estimated 16 to be the optimal number of days of crane incubation needed to maximize the number of offspring produced. These results show that using decision-analytic tools to account for uncertainty in captive breeding can improve the rate at which such programs contribute to wildlife reintroductions. (C) 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Context Prey switching by invasive carnivorans to changing food supply could severely impact on endemic prey of conservation importance, but experimental evidence for prey switching in carnivorans is rare. Stoats (Mustela erminea) were introduced to New Zealand and now threaten survival of many native birds, reptiles and invertebrates. Aim Our primary objective was to see whether abundant food caused stoats inhabiting an alpine grassland site to alter the rate at which they preyed upon weta (Orthoptera : Hemiandrus sp.), hares (Lepus europeus), birds and mice (Mus musculus). Methods We used dead rabbits as supplemental food in a before-after-control-impact experiment. Stoat scats were collected from a treatment and non-treatment site before and following food supplementation. Percentage frequency occurrence of the different prey types was assessed for the two sites during each experimental phase. Conclusions Stoats ate fewer ground weta and hares, the two most abundant prey types, when supplemental food was added. In contrast, consumption of mice remained relatively stable at both sites throughout the experiment, and the consumption of birds declined at both sites. Implications Our experiment suggests that stoats may continue to eat scarce endemic prey at similar per capita rates even when alternative prey are available. However, endemic prey that are locally or regionally abundant may be indirectly impacted by fluctuations in alternative prey.

Abstract Ship rats exhibit large increases in abundance (irruptions) following heavy beech seedfall in New Zealand's Nothofagus forests. Predation by rats at high density severely damages native fauna populations. In 2006 the Department of Conservation undertook a management experiment in the Eg‐linton Valley to see if they could protect endangered species during a rat irruption. Poison (0.15% 1080, followed by 0.0375% coumatetralyl, or Racumin®) was laid in bait stations, and the consequences for rat abundance and survival were estimated. All 10 radio‐tagged rats died, suggesting that 1080 had a high impact on the rat population. The two rats that made the smallest daily movements survived longer than the others. Live trapping documented a reduced abundance of rats within the poison area (450 ha) after 1 month of poisoning. However, after 4 months of poisoning, the abundance of rats had begun to recover. Further investigation is needed on acceptance of Racumin® to rats, optimum spacing of bait stations for rats, and bait competition between rats and mice when densities of both species are high.