Tannery wastewater (TWW) contains high levels of organic and inorganic pollutants as well as heavy metals. Its complex composition necessitates adequate treatment to minimize harmful impacts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and to ensure its safe reuse in crop irrigation. Conventional treatment methods, such as bacterial processes, have several drawbacks, including secondary pollutant generation and sludge formation. In this study, a bacterial and microalgal consortium comprising Bacillus licheniformis and Auxenochlorella pyrenoidosa was developed for the effective treatment of TWW and for utilizing the resulting biomass to produce value-added products. The study showed that the developed consortium was an efficient and sustainable alternative to conventional treatment methods achieving reductions in chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN), phosphate, nitrite, fluoride and sulphate by 98.36

The growing environmental footprint of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in anthropogenic soils requires analytical procedures that balance trace-level sensitivity with environmental stewardship. This study develops a methodology for simultaneous screening and quantification of 44 legacy and emerging PFAS including precursor compounds and ether-linked analogs in complex industrial soil matrices. A five-factor Box-Behnken Design was employed to statistically optimize a micro-extraction protocol, producing a significant quadratic model (F-value = 74.46, p < 0.0001) that effectively resolved multidimensional interactions. The optimized method demonstrated exceptional analytical performance, with recoveries ranging from of 71.35% to 108.22% and LODs as low as 0.003–0.031 ng/g. The application of method to 30 industrial soil samples from the Dahej industrial cluster, Gujarat, India, revealed a multi-generational contamination profile reflecting evolving industrial PFAS usage. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) highlighted a significant industrial transformation with new substitutes like hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPODA) and perfluoro-3,7-dimethyloctanoic acid (PF-3,7-DMOA) taking the lead in the chemical signature with contributing over 60% of the total PFAS load in the localized hotspots. Greenness and sustainability benchmarking yielded an AGREE score of 0.7, MoGAPI of 72, and BAGI of 75.0. Also, the Method Brilliance (MB) score, which is a combination of analytical quality, greenness, and productivity, was 81.0% in the RGB model, which is considered to have earned a ‘White’ designation indicative of balanced, high-performance traits, providing a scalable blueprint for PFAS monitoring and regulatory compliance in rapidly industrializing economies.

Unraveling life's origin involves finding environments that can form and preserve organic molecules, with hydrothermal systems offering a likely setting. Terrestrial mineral deposits in the form of silicates and carbonates may have functioned as natural reactors that facilitated early prebiotic chemical reactions. At lab scale, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) surfaces accelerate key prebiotic reactions, yet natural sites focusing on organic preservation associated with CaCO3 remain limited. This study shows that CaCO3 can actively concentrate and stabilize organic molecules under extreme conditions. In this work, we present the first empirical demonstration that Puga, Ladakh's hot-spring travertine, hosts prebiotic molecules, serving as a natural template for mineral-driven organic reactions. X-ray diffraction showed C-O lattice distortions in calcite linked to biogenic input, while molecular analysis identified carbonate bands with organic groups. Biomarker analysis detected trapped biomarkers including traces of beta-alanine derivatives (amino propanoic acid), pyran-2-thione, TMS-derivatized formamide, cyclooctasulfur (S8), and hexadecenoic methyl ester (fatty acid). Stable-isotopic signatures of travertine yielded delta 18Ocarb similar to -24 parts per thousand VPDB and delta 13Ccarb similar to -5 parts per thousand VPDB. Elemental geochemistry indicated low-temperature hydrothermal enrichment in large-ion lithophiles and depletion of high-field-strength elements. We hypothesized a four-step conceptual model emphasizing travertine's dual role in preserving inorganic tracers and organic precursors. Findings reveal that cold ambient conditions synergize with hydrothermal processes to host and concentrate prebiotic molecules within calcic matrices. Rapid CO2 degassing and cooling of vent fluids in a colder external environment trigger low-Mg calcite precipitation, encapsulating diatoms and organic moieties, offering new insights into mineral scaffolds that could have triggered early-life reactions.

Triazophos is an organophosphate pesticide and was frequently used to control insect pests on paddy and other crops. It acts by inhibiting the activity of acetylcholinesterase leading to insect mortality. The deleterious effects of triazophos on non-target aquatic organisms (such as fish) have been scarcely investigated. This study was designed to evaluate the immunotoxic effects of triazophos on the spleen and head kidney cells in the snakehead teleost, Channa punctatus. Three in vitro triazophos concentrations (0.1, 0.5, and 1 µg mL−1) were tested to analyze the production of superoxide anions, nitrite generation, phagocytosis and lymphocyte proliferation. Nitrite release and superoxide production by immune cells from these lymphoid organs were differentially suppressed when the cells were cultured with triazophos. Triazophos significantly suppressed mitogen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation. Additionally, triazophos suppressed the phagocytosis by lymphoid organ cells in a dose-dependent manner. Residual pesticides present in aquatic bodies pose a critical problem and understanding their role in modulating the physiological responses of aquatic organisms is essential. The findings of this study will aid in developing appropriate measures to combat freshwater ecotoxicity.

This research provides insights about the synthesis and characterization of copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) using a simple, environmentally conscious approach, employing sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), starch, and polyethyleneimine (PEI). The synthesis aimed to produce stable CuNPs with controlled properties (particle size, shape, size distribution, crystal structure, surface chemistry, etc.) for heavy metal detection applications. Comprehensive characterization was performed utilizing a suite of analytical techniques, including UV–Vis, FTIR, XRD, DLS, and TEM. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was used to quantify the copper content. Subsequently, the synthesized CuNPs were applied for the rapid screening of heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions, with a focus on mercury (Hg2⁺) detection. A colorimetric and spectrophotometric method was developed, utilizing the interaction between Hg2⁺ ions and the CuNPs, which resulted in a visually evident colour change and a corresponding shift in the UV–Visible absorption spectrum. Metal ions tested for detection were Fe3⁺, Pb2⁺, Zn2⁺, Cd2⁺, Ni2⁺, As3⁺, Al3⁺, Mn2⁺, Cr3⁺, Cu2⁺, Hg2⁺, Co2⁺, Sn4⁺, and Mn2⁺. This method enabled rapid detection of Hg2⁺ ions within a mere 5 min. The limit of detection (LOD) for Hg2⁺ ions by the visual colorimetric method was determined to be around 0.277 ppm, demonstrating the high sensitivity of the synthesized CuNPs for heavy metal detection. This study underscores the potential of SDS, starch, and PEI-stabilized CuNPs as a promising material for rapid, sensitive, cost-effective, and extremely selective heavy metal detection in environmental monitoring and remediation applications, offering a viable alternative to traditional analytical methods.

Landfill leachates have complex cocktails of metals, pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), posing significant yet often overlooked ecological risks through mixture toxicity. This study unveils how seasonal monsoon dynamics amplify leachate contaminant levels from the Dubagga landfill site, Lucknow (India), triggering cascading physiological and molecular disruptions in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida, upon acute and chronic exposures. Post-monsoon leachate contained 1841 μg L-1 PAHs, 196 μg L-1 pesticides and 10,710 μg L-1 metal - a 150-fold increase in chemical diversity compared to pre-monsoon samples. While acute exposure caused no mortality, chronic exposure (56 days) reduced cocoon production by 67 % and hatchling viability by 89 % at 100 % concentration, unmasking latent reproductive toxicity. Oxidative stress increased markedly, evidenced by a 3.8-fold surge in reactive oxygen species and dysregulation of antioxidant enzymes. Concurrently, neurotoxicity was demonstrated by a 4.7-fold elevation in acetylcholinesterase activity. Transcriptomics revealed differentially expressed genes, dominated by oxidative phosphorylation suppression (FDR < 0.01) and mRNA surveillance pathway activation, a novel biomarker signature of mixture stress. Paradoxically, conventional risk quotients (RQ < 1) underestimated hazards, as metal-PAH complexes demonstrated combined neurotoxic effects exceeding individual contaminant predictions by 2.4-fold. These findings challenge traditional, single-contaminant risk models, advocating for mixture toxicity indices in landfill management. By bridging chemical analysis, multi-omics and ecotoxicology, this work provides a blueprint for detecting hidden interaction effects in complex environmental matrices, a critical step toward safeguarding soil ecosystems in an era of escalating waste generation and climate volatility.

Crude oil sludge contamination and its disposal pose significant threats to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This study assessed the ecological risks of crude oil sludge through polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) quantification and multi-endpoint toxicity evaluation in Eisenia fetida. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of crude oil sludge from Ankaleshwar, India, revealed the presence of 3- to 5-ring PAHs at concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 10.35 μg/mL. The effects of crude oil sludge (0.01-500 g/kg) were examined across the earthworm life cycle, including cocoons, juveniles, and adults. Exposure to sludge caused a significant, concentration-dependent reduction in survival, biomass, and reproduction. Although cocoon exposure did not significantly affect hatchling numbers, it notably impaired adult reproduction by reducing hatchling counts. Juveniles displayed greater sensitivity, with mortality rates of 30-50 % at days 7 and 14, respectively, accompanied by decreased body weight following chronic exposure. In contrast, adult earthworms showed significant declines in cocoon production and juvenile formation without immediate effects on survival. Phenanthrene was the only PAH consistently detected in earthworm tissues, reaching concentrations up to 440.53 μg/g in adults and 0.212 μg/g in juveniles. Biochemical analyses revealed marked alterations in oxidative stress and neurotoxicity markers. Adults exhibited significant induction of antioxidant enzymes under chronic exposure, whereas juveniles showed minimal or reduced enzymatic responses, indicating stage-specific physiological resilience. Histological examination demonstrated concentration-dependent muscle degeneration and disruption of the gut epithelium. Overall, these findings identify phenanthrene as a key contributor to crude oil sludge toxicity and underscore the importance of assessing life-cycle responses in terrestrial ecotoxicology.

In an alternative medicinal system, Matricaria chamomilla is used for various conditions like inflammation, higher cholesterol, wounds, diabetes and pregnancy-related issues. However, there is contradiction about the use of Matricaria chamomilla at the time of pregnancy. Therefore, the present study is designed to investigate the embryotoxic and developmental effects of Matricaria chamomilla using zebrafish embryos as a model. Matricaria chamomilla's chemical profiling was done using GC-MS/MS analysis. Fertilized embryos were selected and exposed to 0.1% vehicle (alcohol) and test medicine Matricaria chamomilla (mother tincture, 6C and 30C) for 96 hrs. Normal control group embryo exposed to embryo media. All the embryos were observed for mortality, hatching, morphological parameters and heart rate till 96 hours. GC-MS/MS analysis revealed 80 phytochemical compounds in hydro-alcoholic extract of Matricaria chamomilla. It exerted a mild effect on hatching rate and showed mortality than any other group. Whereas, after the exposure of Matricaria chamomilla-6C and 30C, there were no changes observed in all the parameters. Overall, the result reveals that Matricaria chamomilla-6C and 30C (at high dilution) is found safe and indicated its safety at the time of pregnancy. However, further validation in higher animal models is recommended for proper clinical correlation.

The most prominent and easily identifiable factor of water purity is its colour, which may be both physically undesirable, and act as an alert towards potential environmental contamination. The current study describes the optimum synthesis technique for Lemon Peel-Chitosan hydrogel using the Response Surface Methodology integrated Central composite Design (RSM-CCD). This adsorbent is both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. The hydrogel exhibited a maximal dye removal capacity of 24.984, 24.788, 24.862, 23.483, 24.409, and 24.726 mg g-1 , for 10 mg L-1 aqueous medium of Safranin O, Methylene blue, Basic fuchsin, Toluidine blue, Brilliant green and Crystal violet, respectively. The adsorption kinetics and isotherm data suggest that the Pseudo secondorder kinetic and Freundlich adsorption isotherm models precisely represent the respective behaviour of all the dyes. The thermodynamic viability of the process is determined by the values of Delta G, Delta H, and Delta S. The probable mechanism of adsorption was the electrostatic interaction between the dye molecules and the hydrogel. The regenerated hydrogel had removal efficiencies of over 80 % even after enduring six cycles. Hence, the exceptional recyclability and utility of the adsorbent show their sustainability for wastewater treatment in textile factories.

Globally, sewage sludge is produced in large quantities as a by-product in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), which have organic and inorganic contaminants. Due to its high caloric value, this sludge is used as manure in agricultural fields. For this, regular sludge monitoring is necessary to understand the potential risks and limit the release of toxic substances into the environment. To this end, heavy metals, pesticides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed in wet and dry sludge samples collected from the Bharwara WWTP in Lucknow for two consecutive years. Further, to determine the environmental impact of sludge, Caenorhabditis elegans was used, and end-points such as recovery, growth, and reproduction were studied. Our data revealed the presence of heavy metals, pesticides, and PAHs in the sludge samples. Exposure of worms to sludge did not impact the growth of the organism. However, recovery and reproduction were negatively impacted by exposure to wet sludge, while dry sludge had the opposite impact on the reproductive ability of worms. This study indicates that dry sludge processed under the sun has lower amounts of contaminants and is comparatively safer for test organisms, and C. elegans is an apt model for ecotoxicity assessment of sludge.

The essential oil of Pelargonium graveolens (rose-scented geranium), an important aromatic plant, comprising mainly mono- and sesqui-terpenes, has applications in food and cosmetic industries. This study reports the characterization of isoprenyl disphosphate synthases (IDSs) involved in P. graveolens terpene biosynthesis. The six identified PgIDSs belonged to different classes of IDSs, comprising homomeric geranyl diphosphate synthases (GPPSs; PgGPPS1 and PgGPPS2), the large subunit of heteromeric GPPS or geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases (GGPPSs; PgGGPPS), the small subunit of heteromeric GPPS (PgGPPS.SSUI and PgGPPS.SSUII), and farnesyl diphosphate synthases (FPPS; PgFPPS).All IDSs exhibited maximal expression in glandular trichomes (GTs), the site of aroma formation, and their expression except PgGPPS.SSUII was induced upon treatment with MeJA. Functional characterization of recombinant proteins revealed that PgGPPS1, PgGGPPS and PgFPPS were active enzymes producing GPP, GGPP/GPP, and FPP respectively, whereas both PgGPPS.SSUs and PgGPPS2 were inactive. Co-expression of PgGGPPS (that exhibited bifunctional G(G)PPS activity) with PgGPPS.SSUs in bacterial expression system showed lack of interaction between the two proteins, however, PgGGPPS interacted with a phylogenetically distant Antirrhinum majus GPPS.SSU. Further, transient expression of AmGPPS.SSU in P. graveolens leaf led to a significant increase in monoterpene levels. These findings provide insight into the types of IDSs and their role in providing precursors for different terpenoid components of P. graveolens essential oil.

Cadmium (Cd) exposure to the animals including humans is reported as nephrotoxic compounds i.e., disturbing redox status (increase oxidative stress), mitochondrial dysfunction, renal cell death and altered transporters in the renal system. Hsp27 (a small heat shock protein) has been shown as one of the modulators in the renal dysfunction and increased against the Cd induced toxicity. However, no studies are reported on the genetic modulation of stress protein against the Cd-induced nephrotoxicity. The current study aimed to examine the protective role of hsp27 overexpression against the Cd-induced nephrotoxicity using Drosophila melanogaster as an animal model. D. melanogaster renal system includes nephrocytes and Malpighian tubules (MTs) that show the functional similarity with mammalian kidney nephron. Overexpression of the hsp27 was found to reduce the Cd induced oxidative stress, rescue cell death in MTs of Cd exposed D. melanogaster larvae. The rescued GSH level, NADPH level and glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity were also observed in the MTs of the Cd exposed organism. Function (efflux activity and fluid secretion rate) of the MTs was restored in Cd exposed hsp27 overexpressed larvae. Further, results were confirmed by restored brush border microvilli density and reduced uric acid level. Tissue specific knockdown of hsp27 developed Cd like phenotypes in MTs and the phenotypes enhanced in Cd exposed condition. The present study clearly shows the role of hsp27 overexpression in restoration of the MTs function and protection against the Cd induced renal toxicity.

Background: Inorganic biomaterials are biologically active and are used as implants and drug delivery system. They have therapeutically active elements present in their framework that are released in the physiological milieu. Release of these dopants above the supraphysiological limit may produce adverse effects and physicochemical interactions with the loaded drugs. Therefore, this necessitates evaluating the in vivo release kinetics, biodistribution, and excretion profiles of dopants from barium-doped bioglass (BaBG) that has potential anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, and regenerative properties. Methods: In vitro leaching of Ca, Si, and Ba from BaBG was analyzed in simulated body fluid. Release kinetics post single-dose oral administration (1, 5, and 10 mg/kg) was performed in rats. Blood was collected at different time points, and pharmacokinetic parameters of released elements were calculated. The routes of excretion and biodistribution in major organs were evaluated using ICP-MS. Results: Elements were released after the oral administration of BaBG into the plasma. They showed dose-dependent release kinetics and mean residence time. Cmax was observed at 24 h for all elements, followed by a downhill fall. There was also a dose-dependent increase in the volume of distribution, and the clearance of dopants was mostly through feces. Ba and Si were biodistributed significantly in the liver, spleen, and kidneys. However, by the end of day 7, there was a leveling-off effect observed for all elements. Conclusion: All of the dopants exhibited a dose-dependent increase in release kinetics and biodistribution in vital organs. This study will help in dose optimization and understanding of various physicochemical and pharmacokinetic interactions when BaBG is used for future pharmacological studies.

Low-chlorinated polychlorinated biphenyls (LC-PCBs) pose a significant environmental threat to river systems due to their higher volatility, mobility, and solubility compared to higher chlorinated PCBs (HC-PCBs). This study aimed to detect and quantify mono-, di-, and tri-chlorinated PCB congeners in the Ganga River, focusing on sections in Kanpur, an industrial hub, and Prayagraj, known for religious activities. We developed and optimized a liquid–liquid microextraction method using hexane as a solvent. The extraction parameters were optimized using Central Composite Design (CCD), confirming a significant quadratic model fit (p < 0.0001) with a R2 of 0.9262, achieving optimal extraction efficiency. The method demonstrated limits of detection (LOD) ranging from 0.04 to 2.1 µg L−1, limits of quantification (LOQ) from 0.1 to 6.5 µg L−1, and recovery rates between 73.3 and 106.7

A consortium of five distinct bacterial strains was evaluated for their ability to biodegrade multiple polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sewage sludge under microcosm studies. The presence of PAHs was determined from the sludge samples collected during pre- and post-monsoon seasons from three different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Among the 16 PAHs found, the lowest concentration detected was 1.75 ng g-1 of benz(k)fluoranthene, and the highest concentration of 5.41 mg g-1 indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene was found in both dry and wet samples, perhaps owing to its multiple origin of contamination. A bacterial consortium comprising of well characterized bacteria Stenotrophomonas maltophilia IITR87, Ochrobactrum anthropi IITR07, Microbacterium esteraromaticum IITR47, Pseudomonas aeruginosa IITR48, and Pseudomonas mendocina IITR46 employed for PAHs bioremediation in a microcosm study. In 20 days, 65%-70% of PAHs were remediated, and low molecular weight PAHs such as naphthalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene showed enhanced degradation. Bioremediated samples showed a significant reduction in phytotoxicity using plant germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum), black chickpea (Cicer arietinum), and mustard (Brassica juncea), whereas the contaminated soil showed severe inhibition of plant growth. The results comprehensively suggest a possible remediation option for PAHs occurring in complex sewage sludge, preventing further contamination into other environmental compartments.

Clean air is imperative to the survival of all life forms on the planet. However, recent times have witnessed enormous escalation in urban pollution levels. It is therefore, incumbent upon us to decipher measures to deal with it. In perspective, the present study was carried out to assess PM10 and PM2.5 loading, metallic constituents, gaseous pollutants, source contributions, health impact and noise level of nine-locations, grouped as residential, commercial, and industrial in Lucknow city for 2019–21. Mean concentrations during pre-monsoon for PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2 were: 138.2 ± 35.2, 69.1 ± 13.6, 8.5 ± 3.3 and 32.3 ± 7.4 µg/m3, respectively, whereas post-monsoon concentrations were 143.0 ± 33.3, 74.6 ± 14.5, 12.5 ± 2.1, and 35.5 ± 6.3 µg/m3, respectively. Exceedance percentage of pre-monsoon PM10 over National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) was 38.2

This paper reports the synthesis and structural characterization of novel mixed ligand-metal complexes derived from 4-((2-(phenylcarbamothioyl)hydrazinylidene)methyl)benzoic acid (L1) 1 ) and 4-((2-carbamothioylhydrazineylidene)methyl)benzoic acid (L2). 2 ). The ligands, and their complexes with Fe(II), Co(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) salts, were characterized using elemental analysis, FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy), UV (Ultraviolet), 1 H and 13 C NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance), EDX (Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy), AAS (Atomic absorption spectroscopy) and molar conductivity measurements. Elemental analysis and conductance data confirmed the formation of non-electrolytic complexes in a 1:1:1 molar (L1:M:L2) 1 :M:L 2 ) ratio. The ligands bound to the metal ions in a bidentate manner as shown by the IR spectral data. The complexes exhibited an octahedral geometry. DFT (Density functional theory) calculations at B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) ++G(d,p) level supported the experimental findings. Molecular docking studies were performed with four antimicrobial protein targets mainly enoylacyl carrier protein reductases (PDB ID:1D70, 2WYW, 1P9G and 4XRE) to comprehend their binding with the chosen targets. Both the ligands were shown to be non-toxic as depicted by the cytotoxicity test performed using MTT assay. Antimicrobial activity evaluation revealed that the metal complexes exhibited enhanced activity as compared to the free ligands, with the Co(II) complex showing the highest inhibition zones. These findings suggest that the mixed ligand-metal complexes could also be explored for diverse applications.

In the present study, the simple and chemically modified forms of biochar (KMnO4 and HNO3; 0.01 M) obtained from rice husks were used to study the possible mechanism behind the process of cadmium (Cd) adsorption from the synthetic solution having Cd2+ ranged from 10 to 50 ppm. At 50 ppm, the maximum adsorption has been observed and it showed 93% removal by the KMnO4 modification and 86% by HNO3 modification, whereas simple biochar led to 82% removal only. The adsorption pattern follows the Langmuir and pseudo-second-order model. With characterization techniques, it has been confirmed that the KMnO4-modified forms of biochar showed more adsorption capacity than HNO3-modified and simple biochar. Furthermore, to check its practical applicability, the modified forms of biochar have been applied to the wastewater collected from Banaras locomotive works, Bhagwanpur, and Lohta sites of Varanasi city, UP, India. Again, the maximum adsorption of Cd2+ has been observed with KMnO4 modification (92–95%) at all the sites. This result also confirmed that KMnO4 was the best modifying agent over HNO3. Therefore, its application could be promoted in metal-contaminated water and soil to decrease the availability of toxic metals.

Barerock surfaces in dry to semiarid places of the world oftenhost a black-brown accretion rich in Mn and Fe known as rock varnish.The varnish surface presents an ideal environment for microbial development.A burgeoning interdisciplinary arena of scholarship focuses on thebiogeochemical fingerprints of life in severe settings. Given thata large number of researchers hypothesize that varnish formation isa key process by microorganisms, the high altitude Ladakh remainsa largely unexplored research setting. Thus, as one of the world'sharshest dry deserts, we selected Ladakh as the focus for this investigationinto the nature of organic biomarkers found in subaerial rock varnishin this severe climate. Microbial fingerprinting using organic biomarkersand isotopic analyses in conjunction with electron microscopy revealsthe presence of organic metabolites such as fatty acids, alkyl benzenes,oxime, amide, and fatty acids that we interpret as resulting frommineral-microbial interactions. We hypothesize that a newlydiscovered change in surface wettability characteristics from hydrophilic(in host rock) to hydrophobic (in varnish) might be important in facilitatingthe development of microbial processes that could be related to varnishformation.