Pain mitigation strategies for disbudding in goat kids have gained significant attention in recent years because of growing concerns for animal welfare. Disbudding, the removal of horn buds in young goats, is a common practice to enhance safety and manage herd dynamics. However, the procedure will cause pain and distress if not managed effectively. This review covers the array of pain mitigation techniques currently available for disbudding, including the efficacy of these strategies in reducing pain and stress during the disbudding process, with specific attention to the potential toxicity associated with local anesthetics. The current best practice for disbudding on the farm suggests sedation/analgesia with an alpha-2 agonist, the placement of a two-point cornual nerve block, and then an NSAID for postoperative pain. In conclusion, this review offers recommendations for future research directions aimed at enhancing the welfare of young goats subjected to the disbudding procedure. These suggestions hold the promise of fostering significant improvements in the overall well-being of these animals.

Farm animals are routinely subjected to painful husbandry procedures for various purposes. Goat kids are disbudded to improve goat welfare and to ensure safety of other livestock, farm personnel, attending veterinarians and for various other production and managemental procedures. Disbudding is commonly performed on dairy goat farms, in kids under 3 weeks of age. Many scientific studies reported physiological and behavioural changes indicating pain and distress following disbudding, and this can be a significant cause of welfare compromise in goat kids. Recognition and measurement of pain is important to treat and/or manage pain and distress following painful procedures. This review focuses on pain assessment in goat kids following disbudding, using both physiological and behavioural measures. As only a limited information is available on the topic of interest, relevant studies in other young farm animals have also been discussed to compare the status quo in goat kids.

Local anesthetics are commonly used in farm animals to provide analgesia for painful procedures but can cause adverse effects at high systemic concentrations. The pharmacokinetics and efficacy of a long-acting sucrose acetate isobutyrate (SAIB) bupivacaine formulation following cornual nerve block in calves were compared to lidocaine. Fourteen calves were randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups (i) 5% Bupivacaine-SAIB (BUP-SAIB), n = 7; or (ii) 2% lidocaine (LID), n = 7. Cornual nerve block was performed, and duration of effective analgesia was evaluated by nociceptive threshold testing using a hand-held pressure algometer. Blood samples were collected at various time points and plasma concentrations were analyzed by HPLC. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using a non-compartmental model. The mechanical nociceptive thresholds showed that the novel formulation could desensitize the skin around the horn bud for 18.77 ± 8.88 h (range 8–36 h), compared to 0.79 ± 0.34 h (range 0.5–1.5 h) with lidocaine. The mean maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of bupivacaine was 152.03 (SD 37.34) ng/mL and its Tmax was 0.39 (SD 0.13) h. The half-life of elimination was 32.79 ± 11.00 h and the rate of clearance was 0.12 ± 0.03 L h−1. No toxicity signs were seen after treatment in either group. The novel formulation produced long-lasting analgesia of several times greater duration than that produced by lidocaine. This study showed that the safety and efficacy of the SAIB formulation justifies further studies in a larger population of animals.

Objective To investigate the pharmacokinetics, efficacy and convulsive dose of articaine hydrochloride in goat kids. Study design Experimental prospective study. Animals A total of 18 (n = 6 animals per experiment) male Saanen goat kids (2-4 weeks old). Methods The study consisted of three experiments. The first determined the pharmacokinetics of articaine following intravenous administration of articaine hydrochloride (8 mg kg(-1)). The second experiment investigated the anaesthetic efficacy and pharmacokinetics following cornual nerve block using 1.5% articaine hydrochloride. Anaesthesia of horn buds was evaluated using the response to pinprick test. Non-compartmental analysis was used. The final experiment determined the convulsive dose of articaine and its corresponding plasma concentration following intravenous infusion of articaine hydrochloride (4 mg kg(-1) minute(-1)). Data are shown as mean +/- standard deviation. Results The mean terminal half-life (t(1/2 lambda Z)), mean volume of distribution at steady state (Vd(SS)) and mean plasma clearance (CL) of articaine following intravenous administration were 0.66 hour, 3.81 L kg(-1) and 5.33 L hour(-1) kg(-1), respectively. After cornual nerve block, the mean maximum plasma concentration of articaine was 587 ng mL(-1) at 0.22 hour and its mean t(1/2 lambda Z) was 1.26 hours. Anaesthesia of horn buds was observed within 4 minutes following cornual nerve block. The mean dose required to produce convulsions was 16.24 mg kg(-1) and mean convulsive plasma concentrations of articaine and articainic acid were 9905 and 1517 ng mL(-1), respectively. Conclusions Intravenous administration of 8 mg kg(-1) of articaine hydrochloride did not cause any adverse effects. Pharmacokinetic data suggest that articaine was rapidly eliminated and cleared. Cornual nerve block using 1.5% articaine hydrochloride alleviated the response to the acute nociceptive stimulus during disbudding.

This study determined the convulsant plasma concentrations and pharmacokinetic parameters following cornual nerve block and compared the results to recommend a safe dose of lidocaine hydrochloride for goat kids. The plasma concentrations of lidocaine and monoethylglycinexylidide (MGX) were quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. A total dose of 7 mg/kg body weight (BW) was tolerated and should therefore be safe for local and regional anesthesia in goat kids. The mean plasma concentration and mean total dose that produced convulsions in goat kids were 13.59 ± 2.34 µg/mL and 12.31 ± 1.42 mg/kg BW (mean ± S.D.), respectively. The absorption of lidocaine following subcutaneous administration was rapid with Cmax and Tmax of 2.12 ± 0.81 µg/mL and 0.33 ± 0.11 h, respectively. The elimination half-lives (t½λz) of lidocaine hydrochloride and MGX were 1.71 ± 0.51 h and 3.19 ± 1.21 h, respectively. Injection of 1% lidocaine hydrochloride (0.5 mL/site) was safe and effective in blocking the nerves supplying horn buds in goat kids.

The disposition kinetics study of cefquinome was conducted following single intravenous (IV) administration of 2 mg/kg bodyweight in buffalo calves after oral subchronic exposure to flubendiamide and to determine the in vitro plasma protein binding of cefquinome. Plasma concentrations of cefquinome were analyzed using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results were compared with our earlier study on the pharmacokinetics of cefquinome in untreated buffalo calves. Plasma concentration-time data for cefquinome following IV injection were best fit into a two-compartmental open model in flubendiamide-exposed buffalo calves. Following flubendiamide exposure, most of the pharmacokinetic parameters of cefquinome were significantly altered in buffalo calves. Cefquinome was bound to plasma proteins of buffalo calves to the extent of 11.4 ± 0.66%. In flubendiamide-exposed animals an intravenous dose of 2 mg/kg body weight would maintain the therapeutic plasma levels required to be effective against the bacterial pathogens with MIC values ≤0.39 μg/mL for only 12 h, whereas in untreated buffalo calves the same dose of 2 mg/kg body weight would maintain the plasma levels up to 24 h, The study revealed that subchronic flubendiamide exposure significantly alters the disposition of cefquinome in buffalo calves.

Lincomycin 10 mg kg−1, IV in buffalo calves followed two-compartment open model with high distribution rate constant α (11.2 ± 0.42 h−1) and K 12/K 21 ratio (4.40 ± 0.10). Distribution half-life was 0.06 ± 0.01 h and AUC was 41.6 ± 1.73 μg mL−1 h. Large Vdarea (1.15 ± 0.03 L kg−1) indicated good distribution of lincomycin in various body fluids and tissues. Peak plasma level of lincomycin (71.8 ± 1.83 μg mL−1) was observed at 1 min as expected by IV route. The elimination half-life and MRT of lincomycin were short (3.30 ± 0.08 and 4.32 ± 0.11 h, respectively). Lincomycin 10 mg kg−1 IV at 12-h interval would be sufficient to maintain T > MIC above 60 % for bacteria with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) values ≤1.6 μg mL−1. Favourable pharmacokinetic profile in buffalo calves and a convenient dosing interval suggest that lincomycin may be an appropriate antibacterial in buffalo species for gram-positive and anaerobic bacterial pathogens susceptible to lincomycin.

Disposition following single intravenous injection (2 mg/kg) and pharmacodynamics of cefquinome were investigated in buffalo calves 6–8 months of age. Drug levels in plasma were estimated by high-performance liquid chromatography. The plasma concentration–time profile following intravenous administration was best described by a two-compartment open model. Rapid distribution of cefquinome was evident from the short distribution half-life (t ½α  = 0.36 ± 0.01 h), and small apparent volume of distribution (Vdarea = 0.31 ± 0.008 L/kg) indicated limited drug distribution in buffalo calves. The values of area under plasma concentration–time curve, elimination half-life (t ½β ), total body clearance (ClB), and mean residence time were 32.9 ± 0.56 μg·h/mL, 3.56 ± 0.05 h, 60.9 ± 1.09 mL/h/kg, and 4.24 ± 0.09 h, respectively. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration of cefquinome were 0.035–0.07 and 0.05–0.09 μg/mL, respectively. A single intravenous injection of 2 mg/kg may be effective to maintain the MIC up to 12 h in buffalo calves against the pathogens for which cefquinome is indicated.

The comparative pharmacokinetic profile of cefquinome following single intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) administration of 2mg/kg bodyweight was investigated in goats to determine the potential dosage regimen against susceptible microorganisms. Plasma concentrations of cefquinome were determined by high performance liquid chromatography. Plasma cefquinome disposition followed two-compartmental and mono-compartmental open models after IV and IM injection, respectively. Following IV injection, the major pharmacokinetic parameters (mean±SEM) were t½α 1.17±0.22h, t1/2β 5.76±0.19h, Vd(area) 0.51±0.05L/kg, AUC 33.83±2.53μg/mL, ClB 0.06±0.004L/h/kg and MRT 6.09±0.11h. After IM administration, the principal pharmacokinetic parameters (mean±SEM) were, Cmax 4.84±0.23μg/mL, Tmax 1.5h, t½kα 0.64±0.23h, t½β 5.86±0.29h, AUC 19.82±2.07μgh/mL and MRT 8.08±0.50h. The bioavailability after IM injection was 57.39±3.40%. A dosage regimen of 2mg/kg body weight at 24h interval following IV or IM injection would maintain the plasma levels required to be effective against the bacterial pathogens with MIC values≤0.39μg/mL.

Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and TherapeuticsVolume 36, Issue 3 p. 306-308 Short Communication Pharmacokinetics of tolfenamic acid following two oral dose levels in buffalo calves V. Dinakaran, V. Dinakaran Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorV. K. Dumka, Corresponding Author V. K. Dumka Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, IndiaDr V. K. Dumka, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana-141004, India. E-mail: vkdumka@yahoo.comSearch for more papers by this author V. Dinakaran, V. Dinakaran Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, IndiaSearch for more papers by this authorV. K. Dumka, Corresponding Author V. K. Dumka Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, IndiaDr V. K. Dumka, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana-141004, India. E-mail: vkdumka@yahoo.comSearch for more papers by this author First published: 12 November 2012 https://doi.org/10.1111/jvp.12025Citations: 10Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume36, Issue3June 2013Pages 306-308 RelatedInformation