Nocturnal animals are difficult to see and follow, especially in dense rainforest conditions. Nocturnal research is fraught with difficulties not encountered by individuals who study animals in the day, from the need for expensive equipment, constant access to power supplies to run lights and potential for increased encounters with dangerous wildlife. The main drawback of nocturnal fieldwork is that it is simply more difficult to find and continuously observe an animal at night. Through hard work and perseverance it is possible to obtain ecological data on lorises and pottos in the absence of radio tracking (e.g. Das et al., 2014; Nekaris, 2001; Pliosungnoen et al., 2010). Much more detail can be obtained, however, through capturing, measuring, collaring and monitoring nocturnal primates. The essential nature of radio tracking for the study of the behaviour and ecology of nocturnal primates has been recognised since the 1970s (e.g. Charles-Dominique, 1977a; Charles-Dominique and Bearder, 1979), and is by most researchers considered a must for thorough research (Sterling et al., 2000). Radio-tracking studies of lorises and pottos remain limited (2000; Millspaugh and Marzluff, 2001). In this chapter, we review the methods for trapping and collaring slow lorises and pottos, as well as provide a case study of the importance of red light for observing their behaviour in a humane and productive manner (see Box 24.1).

OBJECTIVES Synthesize information on sleep patterns, sleep site use, and daytime predation at sleep sites in lorisiforms of Asia and Africa (10 genera, 36 species), and infer patterns of evolution of sleep site selection. MATERIALS AND METHODS We conducted fieldwork in 12 African and six Asian countries, collecting data on sleep sites, timing of sleep and predation during daytime. We obtained additional information from literature and through correspondence. Using a phylogenetic approach, we established ancestral states of sleep site selection in lorisiforms and traced their evolution. RESULTS The ancestral lorisiform was a fur-clinger and used dense tangles and branches/forks as sleep sites. Use of tree holes and nests as sleep sites emerged ∼22 Mya (range 17-26 Mya) in Africa, and use of bamboo emerged ∼11 (7-14) Mya in Asia and later in Africa. Fur clinging and some sleep sites (e.g., tree holes, nests, but not bamboo or dense tangles) show strong phylogenetic signal. Nests are used by Galagoides, Paragalago, Galago and Otolemur; tree holes by Galago, Paragalago, Sciurocheirus and Perodicticus; tangles by Nycticebus, Loris, Galagoides, Galago, Euoticus, Otolemur, Perodicticus and Arctocebus; all but Sciurocheirus and Otolemur additionally sleep on branches/forks. Daytime predation may affect sleep site selection and sleep patterns in some species of Nycticebus, Galago, Galagoides, Otolemur and Perodicticus. Most lorisiforms enter their sleep sites around sunrise and leave around sunset; several are active during twilight or, briefly, during daytime. CONCLUSION Variations in sleep behavior, sleep patterns and vulnerability to daytime predation provide a window into the variation that was present in sleep in early primates. Overall, lorisiforms use the daytime for sleeping and no species can be classified as cathemeral or polycyclic.

Lorisiform primates (Primates: Strepsirrhini: Lorisiformes) represent almost 10% of the living primate species and are widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa and South/South-East Asia; however, their taxonomy, evolutionary history, and biogeography are still poorly understood. In this study we report the largest molecular phylogeny in terms of the number of represented taxa. We sequenced the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for 86 lorisiform specimens, including ∼80% of all the species currently recognized. Our results support the monophyly of the Galagidae, but a common ancestry of the Lorisinae and Perodicticinae (family Lorisidae) was not recovered. These three lineages have early origins, with the Galagidae and the Lorisinae diverging in the Oligocene at about 30 Mya and the Perodicticinae emerging in the early Miocene. Our mitochondrial phylogeny agrees with recent studies based on nuclear data, and supports Euoticus as the oldest galagid lineage and the polyphyletic status of Galagoides. Moreover, we have elucidated phylogenetic relationships for several species never included before in a molecular phylogeny. The results obtained in this study suggest that lorisiform diversity remains substantially underestimated and that previously unnoticed cryptic diversity might be present within many lineages, thus urgently requiring a comprehensive taxonomic revision of this primate group.

African Journal of EcologyVolume 47, Issue 4 p. 784-787 A survey of nocturnal primates (Strepsirrhini: Galaginae, Perodictinae) in southern Nigeria Elizabeth Pimley, Corresponding Author Elizabeth Pimley * Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author Elizabeth Pimley, Corresponding Author Elizabeth Pimley * Correspondence: E-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author First published: 13 November 2009 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00970.xCitations: 7Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Ambose, L. (1999) Species Diversity in West and Central African Galagos (Primates, Galagidae): The Use of Acoustic Analysis. PhD thesis, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. Google Scholar Ambrose, L. (2003) Three acoustic forms of Allen's galagos (Primates; Galagonidae) in the Central African region. Primates 44, 25–39. PubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar Donati, G. & Borgognini-Tarli, S.M. (2007) From darkness to daylight: cathemeral activity in primates. J. Anthropol. Sci. 84, 7–32. Google Scholar Groves, C. (2001) Loriformes. In: Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington DC. Google Scholar Grubb, P., Butysnki, T., Oates, J.F., Bearder, S.K., Disotell, T.R., Groves, C.P. & Struhsaker, T.T. (2003) Assessment of the diversity of African Primates. Int. J. Primatol. 26, 1301–1357. 10.1023/B:IJOP.0000005994.86792.b9 Web of Science®Google Scholar Jewell, P.A. & Oates, J.F. (1969) Ecological observations on the lorisoid primates of African lowland forest. Zool. Afr. 4, 231–248. 10.1080/00445096.1969.11447373 Google Scholar Nekaris, K.A.I. & Bearder, S.K. (2007) The strepsirrhine primates of Asia and Mainland Africa: diversity shrouded in darkness. In: Primates in Perspective (Eds C. Campell, A. Feuntes, K. MacKinnon, M. Panger and S.K. Bearder). Oxford University Press, Oxford. Google Scholar Oates, J.F. (1969) The lower primates of eastern Nigeria. Afr. Wildlife, 23, 321–332. Google Scholar Oates, J.F. & Jewell, P.A. (1967) Westerly extent of the range of three African lorisoid primates. Nature 215, 778–779. 10.1038/215778b0 PubMedGoogle Scholar Pimley, E.R. (2002) The Behavioural Ecology and Genetics of Two Nocturnal Prosimains: Pottos (Perodicticus potto edwardsi) and Allen's bushbabies (Galago alleni cameronensis). PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Google Scholar Pimley, E.R., Bearder, S.K. & Dixson, A.F. (2005a) Social organization of the Milne-Edward's potto. Am. J. Primatol. 66, 317–330. 10.1002/ajp.20159 PubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar Pimley, E.R., Bearder, S.K. & Dixson, A.F. (2005b) Home range analysis of Perodicticus potto and Sciurocheirus cameronensis. Int. J. Primatol. 26, 191–205. 10.1007/s10764-005-0730-1 Web of Science®Google Scholar Powell, C.B. (1997) Discoveries and priorities for mammals in the freshwater forests of the Niger Delta. Oryx 31, 83–85. Web of Science®Google Scholar Roos, C. (2007) Molekulare Phylogenie der Halbaffen, Schlankaffen, und Gibbons. Dissertation, Technischen Universitaet München, München. Google Scholar Rowe, N. (1996) The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates. Pognias Press, East Hampton. Google Scholar Citing Literature Volume47, Issue4December 2009Pages 784-787 ReferencesRelatedInformation

References http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1626/2769.full.html#related-urls Article cited in: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1626/2769.full.html#ref-list-1 This article cites 38 articles, 4 of which can be accessed free Email alerting service here right-hand corner of the article or click Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article sign up in the box at the top

The Eurasian badger ( Meles meles) is implicated in the transmission of bovine tuberculosis ( TB) to cattle in the UK and Republic of Ireland. Badger culling has been employed for the control of TB in cattle in both countries, with varying results. Social perturbation of badger populations following culling has been proposed as an explanation for the failure of culling to consistently demonstrate significant reductions in cattle TB. Field studies indicate that culling badgers may result in increased immigration into culled areas, disruption of territoriality, increased ranging and mixing between social groups. Our analysis shows that some measures of sociality may remain significantly disrupted for up to 8 years after culling. This may have epidemiological consequences because previous research has shown that even in a relatively undisturbed badger population, movements between groups are associated with increases in the incidence of Mycobacterium bovis infection. This is consistent with the results from a large-scale field trial, which demonstrated decreased benefits of culling at the edges of culled areas, and an increase in herd breakdown rates in neighbouring cattle.

Nocturnal prosimian primates are often seen alone during their nocturnal activities, and are therefore categorized as “solitary”. Recent research has shown that these animals actually possess social networks that differ among species. Here we present new information on one of the lesser studied prosimian primates, the potto, derived from fieldwork in Cameroon that employed radiotelemetry and behavioral observations. An analysis of association patterns and home‐range overlaps between animals revealed that pottos associated more frequently with conspecifics than expected for a supposedly solitary primate. Certain males and females that were seen together regularly throughout the study, but were not observed to have contact with other pottos of the opposite sex, were labeled as “pairs”. These pairs were found to have higher levels of association with each other than with other conspecifics. The only affiliative and sexual behaviors observed between members of the opposite sex occurred within the pairs of pottos. Although given the secretive nature of these primates, the possibility of extrapair copulations cannot be ruled out, their relatively small testis size indicates that sperm competition is not so important for this species. Am. J. Primatol. 66:317–330, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Because the spatial arrangements of nocturnal prosimians are often used to indicate their social systems, it is important to assess the reliability of methods used to analyze ranging patterns. We compared methods of home range analysis for 2 species of nocturnal prosimians: central pottos (Perodicticus potto edwardsi) and Cross River Allen’s galagos ({Sciurocheirus cameronensis}). We conducted radio-tracking studies of 10 pottos and 8 galagos from October 1999 – November 2000 in the montane rain forests of southwest Cameroon. We calculated home ranges via minimum convex polygon (MCPs) and kernel analyses. Adult potto home ranges averaged 145.2 ha (MCPs) versus only 28.4 ha via kernel analysis; the difference is statistically significant. The mean home range of galagos is 18.3 ha via MCPs and 2.19 ha via kernel analysis; the difference is statistically significant. Neither MCP nor kernel analyses revealed a sex difference in adult home ranges for pottos and galagos. Kernel analysis gave more reliable estimates of home ranges than the minimum convex polygon method used in many studies of nocturnal prosimians. Minimum convex polygon analysis tended to overestimate the range sizes and to include many areas not traversed by the animal. We compared our findings with those from an earlier study of similar species in Gabon, where little attention was given to the home range analysis, technique. Together with studies of lemur spatial systems they highlight the importance of considering the method of home range analysis when it is to be applied to understanding social systems.

This paper provides a checklist and summary of what is currently known of the variation in infant contact, sleeping site preference and aspects of social cohesion in the nocturnal primates of Africa. Genera and species are compared, based on previously unpublished field observations and a review of the literature. There is a clear pattern of similarity between the species within each genus and distinct differences between genera. Species in the same genus tend to be ecologically equivalent and replace each other allopatrically, whereas species in different genera are more likely to be sympatric, with up to 6 species living together. Maximum sympatry within genera is found in Otolemur and Galagoİdes, where species are ecologically divergent. This may reflect an ancient origin of species within these genera or suggest that further taxonomic revision is required at the generic level. Some data are recorded for the first time for species that have only recently been separated (cryptic species), but some taxa remain very poorly known. It is concluded that field studies are still at an elementary stage and further research with radio tracking is urgently needed in the face of rapidly declining habitats.