The value of higher education is currently being questioned. This article uses microdata from the 2009–2022 American Community Survey (ACS) to analyze the impact of educational attainment, major, and double majors on labor market outcomes. By analyzing earnings and college majors, this research refines our understanding of education’s value for researchers, policymakers, and prospective students. Our work corroborates previous findings that bachelor’s degrees contribute significantly to higher earnings and that the choice of college major affects earnings. We also show that the increased resilience to economic downturns found for bachelor’s degree holders is positive for all majors, and that the positive impact differs by gender. We also show that the wage differential for BD holders follows a bell-shaped curve throughout a person’s lifetime. The decline in the wage premium in later years is particularly pronounced and starts earlier for women.

This article examines the role of institutions and entrepreneurship to foster economic development under increasing complex economic structures caused by structural changes. The empirical work utilizes data from several sources including the Penn World Table 9.1, The Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute, the Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC) at the MIT, and The International Country Risk Guide (ICRG). The empirical work circumvents the endogeneity and heterogeneity problem that plague cross-country regressions by using the Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998) system GMM estimator. The results show that while entrepreneurship is positively correlated to economic development, this correlation disappears when controlling for heterogeneity and/or for differences in quality of institutions. There is also evidence that the importance of institutional quality for economic development increases when an economy become more complex. Overall, findings of this research suggest that quality of institutions is not only important to foster entrepreneurship, but also very important to mediate complex economic structures that emerge as part the development process and structural changes. The main policy implication of this work is that economies in transition must take steps to improve the quality of their institutions, particularly of institutions that enable productive entrepreneurship and mediate the increased complexity resulting from the inherent structural transformation associated with economic development. JEL Codes: O57, O43, O47

The objective of this paper is to verify if human capital is an important determinant of structural change in different sectors of the economy and if it can accelerate the speed of this structural transformation. This paper contributes to the literature by developing an empirical test of the model proposed by Li et al. (2019) and by using the GMM methodology. It also uses two proxies for human capital (average years of schooling and the Penn World Table index) and structural change (employment and added value share) in order to verify whether or not they affect the variable of interest. Results showed that human capital has an essential role in the structural transformation process of the economy, since it has an effect on the relative participation of the sectors on total added value or on total employment. Also, human capital proved to be a potential accelerator of this structural transformation.

No AccessDec 2021Ways ForwardAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte VernerSearch for more papers by this author, Nanna RoosSearch for more papers by this author, Afton HalloranSearch for more papers by this author, Glenn SurabianSearch for more papers by this author, Edinaldo TebaldiSearch for more papers by this author, Maximillian AshwillSearch for more papers by this author, Saleema VellaniSearch for more papers by this author, Yasuo KonishiSearch for more papers by this authorhttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3_ch6AboutView ChaptersFull TextPDF (1.6 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Outlines the major factors constraining the widespread adoption of insect and hydroponic farming in Africa, and proposes practical ways forward in replacing the linear food economy with a circular food economy through the expansion of frontier agricultural technologies. Increase food security in Africa, particularly in countries affected by fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV), calls for sustainably producing nutritious food and increasing access for all. The circular food economy provides a two-phase model—establishing and piloting; and scaling—for achieving this within planetary boundaries and promoting green, resilient, and inclusive development, known as “GRID.” The main constraints to the widespread adoption of these technologies include (1) a general lack of knowledge; (2) a lack of organizations and institutions to transfer this knowledge; (3) weak regulatory frameworks on food safety and production; (4) a lack of government support; (5) farming subsidies artificially propping up conventional farming; (6) insufficient access to finance; and (7) some cultural aversion toward consuming insects. ReferencesDube, S, N R Diamini, A Mafung, M Mukai, and Z Dhlamini. 2013 “A Survey on Entomophagy Prevalence in Zimbabwe.” African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 13 (1): 7242–53. CrossrefGoogle ScholarHistory.com. 2018. “A Taste of Lobster History.” History.com, August 22, 2018. https://www.history.com/news/a-taste-of-lobster-history. Google Scholar Previous chapter FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetails View Published: December 2021ISBN: 978-1-4648-1766-3 Copyright & Permissions Related RegionsAfricaRelated TopicsAgricultureHealth Nutrition and PopulationIndustry KeywordsFRONTIER AGRICULTUREFRAGILE AND CONFLICT-AFFECTED STATESFCSFOOD CONSUMPTIONFOOD SHORTAGEFOOD SECURITYNUTRITIONFARMING PRACTICES INNOVATIONINSECT FARMINGHYDROPONICSFOOD SAFETYAGRICULTURAL SUBSIDIESFOOD SUBSIDIES PDF DownloadLoading ...

No AccessDec 2021Understanding Insect FarmingAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte VernerSearch for more papers by this author, Nanna RoosSearch for more papers by this author, Afton HalloranSearch for more papers by this author, Glenn SurabianSearch for more papers by this author, Edinaldo TebaldiSearch for more papers by this author, Maximillian AshwillSearch for more papers by this author, Saleema VellaniSearch for more papers by this author, Yasuo KonishiSearch for more papers by this authorhttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3_ch3AboutView ChaptersFull TextPDF (4.5 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Examines the food and health benefits of insect farming in Africa, which contributes to food security, job and livelihood creation, and environmental protection, while reducing waste. Farmed insects grow faster; require fewer inputs like water, land, and feed; and have lower climate and environmental impacts compared with other livestock species. Insect consumption has a long history in Africa, but insect farming proves much more recent. Africa consumes about 25 percent of the 2,100 insect species recognized as edible worldwide. Among these, approximately 18 prove suitable for farming—a rapidly growing industry, with estimates showing the market for insects as food and animal feed will grow up to US$8 billion by 2030, a 24 percent compound annual growth rate (CAGR) over the decade. Insects provide similar levels of protein and micronutrients as animal products and could functionally replace fish- and soybean-based feeds, among others, thus increasing food security and employment opportunities for vulnerable groups like youth and women. 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CrossrefGoogle Scholar Previous chapterNext chapter FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetails View Published: December 2021ISBN: 978-1-4648-1766-3 Copyright & Permissions Related RegionsAfricaRelated TopicsAgricultureHealth Nutrition and PopulationIndustry KeywordsMALNUTRITIONFRONTIER AGRICULTUREFRAGILE AND CONFLICT-AFFECTED STATESFCSFOOD CONSUMPTIONFOOD SHORTAGEFOOD SECURITYINSECT FARMINGMICRONUTRIENT SUPPLEMENTATIONAGRICULTURAL WORKERSAGRICULTURAL LABORFARMING PRACTICES INNOVATION PDF DownloadLoading ...

No AccessAgriculture and Rural Development6 Jan 2022Insect and Hydroponic Farming in Africa: The New Circular Food EconomyAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo Konishihttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3AboutView ChaptersPDF (9.6 MB)Other FormatsePUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Interestingly, some relief from today's woes may come from ancient human practices. While current agri-food production models rely on abundant supplies of water, energy, and arable land and generate significant greenhouse gas emissions in addition to forest and biodiversity loss, past practices point toward more affordable and sustainable paths. Different forms of insect farming and soilless crop farming, or hydroponics, have existed for centuries. In this report the authors make a persuasive case that frontier agriculture, particularly insect and hydroponic farming, can complement conventional agriculture. Both technologies reuse society's agricultural and organic industrial waste to produce nutritious food and animal feed without continuing to deplete the planet's land and water resources, thereby converting the world's wasteful linear food economy into a sustainable, circular food economy. As the report shows, insect and hydroponic farming can create jobs, diversify livelihoods, improve nutrition, and provide many other benefits in African and fragile, conflict-affected countries. Together with other investments in climate-smart agriculture, such as trees on farms, alternate wetting and drying rice systems, conservation agriculture, and sustainable livestock, these technologies are part of a promising menu of solutions that can help countries move their land, food, water, and agriculture systems toward greater sustainability and reduced emissions. This is a key consideration as the World Bank renews its commitment to support countries' climate action plans. This book is the Bank's first attempt to look at insect and hydroponic farming as possible solutions to the world's climate and food and nutrition security crisis and may represent a new chapter in the Bank's evolving efforts to help feed and sustain the planet. We hope the book will ignite further discussions and inspire concrete actions toward fully capturing the vast opportunities provided by insect and hydroponic farming as part of revamped, high-performing food systems that provide healthy and sustainable diets for all. Previous book FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetails View Published: December 2021ISBN: 978-1-4648-1766-3 Copyright & Permissions Related TopicsAgriculture KeywordsINSECT FARMINGHYDROPONICCIRCULAR ECONOMYFRONTIER AGRICULTUREFOOD NUTRITIONWOMENYOUTHFOOD SECURITYHUNGERCLIMATE CHANGEJOBS PDF DownloadLoading ...

No AccessDec 2021Mainstreaming Insect FarmingAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte VernerSearch for more papers by this author, Nanna RoosSearch for more papers by this author, Afton HalloranSearch for more papers by this author, Glenn SurabianSearch for more papers by this author, Edinaldo TebaldiSearch for more papers by this author, Maximillian AshwillSearch for more papers by this author, Saleema VellaniSearch for more papers by this author, Yasuo KonishiSearch for more papers by this authorhttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3_ch4AboutView ChaptersFull TextPDF (7.9 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Presents the potential for mainstreaming insect farming into Africa’s greater protein production economy, including estimating protein and biofertilizer production levels from black soldier fly farming and the resulting economic, climate, and employment benefits. Insect supply chains in Africa remain largely informal and differ by insect species and country, but they have slowly developed into an established part of the food system. Small-scale insect farming requires minimal infrastructure, remains low-tech, and requires a limited amount of labor and processing to add value to farmed insects. Modeling of potential widespread black soldier fly (BSF) farming shows Africa could use BSF larvae (BFSL) to replace 60 million tons of traditional feed production and increase Africa's production of organic fertilizer by 60 million tons, creating15 million jobs, preventing 86 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) emissions, and producing a possible market value of crude protein worth up to US$2.6 billion and fertilizer worth up to US$19.4 billion. ReferencesAffognon, H, C Mutungi, P Sanginga, and C Borgemeister. 2015. “Unpacking Post-Harvest Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Meta-Analysis.” World Development 66: 49–68. 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Google Scholar Previous chapterNext chapter FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetails View Published: December 2021ISBN: 978-1-4648-1766-3 Copyright & Permissions Related RegionsAfricaRelated CountriesAlgeriaAngolaEgypt, Arab Rep.EthiopiaGhanaKenyaMoroccoNigeriaSudanTanzaniaZimbabweRelated TopicsAgricultureHealth Nutrition and PopulationIndustry KeywordsCASE STUDYMALNUTRITIONFRONTIER AGRICULTUREFRAGILE AND CONFLICT-AFFECTED STATESFCSFOOD CONSUMPTIONFOOD SHORTAGEFOOD SECURITYINSECT FARMINGMICRONUTRIENT SUPPLEMENTATIONFARMING PRACTICES INNOVATION PDF DownloadLoading ...

No AccessDec 2021Food Security ContextAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte VernerSearch for more papers by this author, Nanna RoosSearch for more papers by this author, Afton HalloranSearch for more papers by this author, Glenn SurabianSearch for more papers by this author, Edinaldo TebaldiSearch for more papers by this author, Maximillian AshwillSearch for more papers by this author, Saleema VellaniSearch for more papers by this author, Yasuo KonishiSearch for more papers by this authorhttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3_ch2AboutView ChaptersFull TextPDF (4.5 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Reports on the current food security situation in African fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV) countries and some of its drivers. The number of undernourished people continues to increase in Africa, particularly in countries affected by FCV, where poor nutrition contributes to poor health, with anemia rates as high as 57 percent among women in The Gambia and child stunting rates as high as 54 percent in Burundi. This undernourishment leads to cognitive disorders, undermining early childhood development, and eventually affecting economic development. The 13 African FCV countries with available data imported 13.6 million tons of cereals in 2018 to meet the domestic food consumption demand. They remain overly dependent on agriculture for generating employment, which can undermine food security, and conflict and violence continue to displace people at an increasing rate. Climate variability and change will continue to aggravate food insecurity, causing renewable freshwater resources to decline and increasing the number of undernourished people in drought-sensitive countries. 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Google Scholar Previous chapterNext chapter FiguresreferencesRecommendeddetails View Published: December 2021ISBN: 978-1-4648-1766-3 Copyright & Permissions Related RegionsAfricaRelated TopicsAgricultureConflict and DevelopmentHealth Nutrition and PopulationSocial Development KeywordsMALNUTRITIONFRONTIER AGRICULTUREFRAGILE AND CONFLICT-AFFECTED STATESFCSFOOD CONSUMPTIONFOOD SHORTAGEFOOD SECURITYANEMIASTUNTINGCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTCEREAL AND GRAINSCLIMATE CHANGEDROUGHTS PDF DownloadLoading ...

No AccessDec 2021Understanding HydroponicsAuthors/Editors: Dorte Verner, Nanna Roos, Afton Halloran, Glenn Surabian, Edinaldo Tebaldi, Maximillian Ashwill, Saleema Vellani, Yasuo KonishiDorte VernerSearch for more papers by this author, Nanna RoosSearch for more papers by this author, Afton HalloranSearch for more papers by this author, Glenn SurabianSearch for more papers by this author, Edinaldo TebaldiSearch for more papers by this author, Maximillian AshwillSearch for more papers by this author, Saleema VellaniSearch for more papers by this author, Yasuo KonishiSearch for more papers by this authorhttps://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1766-3_ch5AboutView ChaptersFull TextPDF (5.6 MB) ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareFacebookTwitterLinked In Abstract: Discusses the benefits of expanding hydroponics as a means to quick and nutritious crop production in Africa. Hydroponics, a climate-smart technology that grows nutritious food and can contribute to food security, job creation, and environmental protection, represents a market worth about US$8.1 billion in 2019 to potentially US$16 billion by 2025. Hydroponic systems, which vary from simple to sophisticated and from open to closed, require several inputs—seeds, seedlings, labor, electricity, technical knowledge, building materials, start-up capital, and operating costs—as well as water, nutrient solution, and a growing medium. People without formal education can rapidly acquire the skills to operate simple hydroponic systems, however, and hydroponic farming proves possible in densely populated urban zones or water-scarce environments because it requires up to 75 percent less space than conventional farming methods and approximately 80 to 99 percent less water. Hydroponic systems can prove profitable despite high start-up costs, and as they scale up, production costs decrease. 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Latin America, which is a region known for its high and persistent income inequality levels, experienced a significant decline in income inequality since the second half of the 1990s. Brazil is a particularly interesting case in Latin America. While the country presented notable economic growth and improvements in income distribution in the early 2000s, Brazil continues to experience high levels of income inequality in comparison with other Latin American or advanced economies. This research contributes to the literature by examining the key drivers of income distribution and the degree of persistence of income inequality among Brazilian states. This research also improves upon previous works by using more recent and comprehensive data and addressing concerns regarding heterogeneity and endogeneity by using the system GMM estimation method. Our findings show that income inequality is highly persistent across Brazilian states and that government policies including income transfer programs made important contributions to reduce income inequality in Brazil. This study also shows that the decline in labor income ratios between different ethnic groups and the increase of the share of formal jobs in the labor market contributed to reduce income inequality.

This research uses Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998) GMM estimator to pinpoint the determinants of sovereign spreads in thirty-one emerging economies from 1994 to 2014. The empirical analysis provides evidence that GDP growth, real effective exchange rate, and political liberation play an essential role in determining the spreads. Openness and geography are surprisingly not significant drivers of a country's riskiness. In addition, the estimates show a considerable impact of the 1997-1998 Asian Crisis and the 2008-2009 Financial Crisis on emerging countries' spreads. However, there was no significant increase in bond spreads in the post-Financial Crisis period.

There are significant differences in labor market outcomes by gender in Tunisia. These gender differences differ substantially in the richer coastal and eastern regions and the poorer southern and western regions. This chapter uses the 2014 Tunisia Labor Market Panel Survey (TLMPS) to examine the characteristics of male and female labor market participants in the lagging southern, western, and central regions, and in the leading regions. The chapter also discusses results from an econometric analysis of the factors that influence monthly wages and the probability of employment for men and women respectively. Our results show that gender plays a huge role in labor market outcomes: women are less likely to participate in the labor force, are more likely to be unemployed, and receive lower wages. In addition, youth and educated women in lagging regions are particularly disadvantaged because they are less likely to find a job and may not have the option of moving to places where employment prospects are better. Moreover, our results suggest that wage discrimination against women is prevalent outside the leading region in Tunisia.

The authors describe a unique approach to enhancing student learning at the introductory economics level that utilizes a multi-section, team-based competition. The competition is structured to supplement learning throughout the entire introductory course. Student teams are presented with current economic issues, trends, or events, and use economic tools and theories to comprehensively examine the topics. Students present their analyses in their own sections with one team from each section moving on to compete in an inter-section round. Students are judged on technicality, creativity, and applicability of economic concepts. The competition has the potential to advance students' creativity, collaboration, communication, and critical and analytical thinking skills, while enhancing their ability to apply foundational economic concepts to real-world settings.

This paper utilizes two alternative econometric strategies to test the hypothesis that countries with poor institutional arrangements create an environment with increased impunity, thus providing incentives for potential law-breakers to engage in criminal activities that lead to rapid contagion of violence. Several measures of institutions including legal, political, market, government, and sociocultural institutions are considered in the paper. The empirical analysis provides evidence that the impact of institutional quality on violence is important regardless of income levels. This finding implies that differences in quality of institutions explain why countries with similar levels of income per capita may have different rates of violence and crime. In addition, the results show that quality of institutions matter for a successful long-term strategy to reduce violence.

There is substantial evidence on the importance of education as a driver of earnings, productivity, and economic growth. However, knowledge of the specific role of associate's degrees in U.S. economic growth is limited. We analyze the sources of U.S. economic growth and identify the contribution of associate's degree holders to improvements in earnings, labor quality, productivity, and overall economic growth. We find evidence that substitution toward workers with associate's degrees has increased U.S. earnings, aggregate labor quality, and productivity, and that these effects are concentrated in the health care, trade, and government sectors. While the average educational attainment of people entering the labor force has plateaued, our results suggest that shifting workers from some college to associate degrees could improve earnings, the quality of the workforce, productivity, and growth, potentially without more time spent in school.

Many refugee and host populations are food insecure and poor. In Syria, the UNICEF screened 2.3 million children and pregnant and lactating women for acute malnutrition. In Jordan, approximately half of the refugee households have reported reducing the quantity and quality of food and skipping meals. In Lebanon, only 7 percent of refugees are living with acceptable levels of food security. This report shows that frontier agriculture, which comprises climate-smart and water saving agriculture technologies, such as hydroponics, can contribute to improve well-being, including nutritional status for farmers and groups of people that are less integrated into the labor market. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), this includes women, youth, and those who are forcibly displaced. Frontier agriculture can leverage scarce resources, such as water and arable land, and promote inclusive economic activities that increase access to nutritious food, improve livelihoods, create jobs, promote entrepreneurship, enhance skills, and build social cohesion. It can also assist with building communities and help recover from the loss of assets and from trauma of fleeing from conflicts. There is an urgency to engage with and support refugee livelihoods. Previous experiences suggest that small-scale hydroponic projects targeting vulnerable populations can be implemented rather quickly and produce meaningful results within a short timeframe.