Intestinal schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted nematode (STN) infections are among the major public health problems globally, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria inclusive. School-aged children carry the highest burden of both infections with significant morbidities in Nigeria. Data on co-endemicity of these infections especially amongst internally displaced persons (IDP) is scarce. To fill this gap, we performed a school-based cross sectional study in three rural communities in North Central Nigeria in which internally displaced persons co-existed. The study aimed to determine the co-endemicity of Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted nematodes infections among primary school children in six primary schools in Guma Local Government area, Benue State, north central Nigeria. Four hundred and forty three primary school pupils were included in the study between January and March 2018 by using simple random technique. A single stool specimen was collected from each participant, and a portion about 1 gram of each specimen was processed by Kato Katz technique. Of the 443 pupils examined, 219(49.4%) were found positive for the characteristic egg of at least one STN. Of the total children, 46(10.4%) had Schistosoma mansoni infection. Co-infection of atleast one STN and S.mansoni occurred in 21(4.7%) of the 443 pupils sampled. Co-infection of Schistosoma mansoni and Ascaris lumbricoides was observed in 11(23.9%) while Schistosoma mansoni and hookworm occurred in 10(21.7%) of the children. There was higher intensity in the total egg count among the males (51.99±60.67) than the females (48.42±59.89) in both genders. The intensity of egg count was highest in age group 7-9 years (55.27±65.03). The lowest intensity was observed in age group 13-15 (41.47±46.08).Integrated interventions such as health education, school feeding program for improved nutrition and mass chemotherapy is advocated.

A study was carried to determine the presence, level of endemicity and the intensity of human Schistosoma haematobium infection in Shonga community of Edu Local Government Area in Kwara State, Nigeria. For permission and maximum cooperation, intensive advocacy and mobilization of the community leaders, school authorities and the pupils preceded the collection of urine specimens which were preserved in 10% alcohol. Microscopic examinations were carried out on the urine specimens. Conclusive diagnosis was based on the characteristic terminal spined egg of S. haematobium. Altogether, 1,479 pupils (60.0% boys and 40.0% girls), aged between 4-20 years, were examined in the over sixteen schools in and around the community, selected by convenience. Of all the pupils examined, 1,144 (77.4%) had the characteristic eggs of S. haematobium in their urine samples. Infection rate for boys was 516 (45.1%) while it was 296 (25.9%) for girls. Thus, boys were significantly more infected than girls (P<0.05). Children between 11-13 years of age had the highest prevalence of infection (47.2%) while those between 4-7 years of age had the least prevalence (30.0%). The overall mean egg-count for the 1,144 infected pupils was 1,598.0±49.32, while the mean egg-counts for boys and girls were 1,213.0±25.6 and 685.0±18.3 respectively. The difference in the intensity of infection between boys and girls was also significant (p<0.05). Of the 1,144 pupils who were infected with S. haematobium 195 (17.0%) had egg-count range of 1-1000, 758 (66.3%) had egg-count range of 1001-5000 while 191 (16.7%) had egg-count range of ≥5001. The prevalence of haematuria was also significantly higher among boys than girls (p<0.05). This study reveals that human Schistosoma haematobium infection is endemic in Shonga community. The awareness about the impact, transmission and prevention of this infection was relatively poor. Research on vaccine development to support the existing chemotherapy for the control and possible elimination of this dreaded but highly neglected parasitic infection should be the priority. Therefore, advocacy, health education chemotherapy and vaccine most be adopted concurrently as the best intervention strategy/approach to eradicate Schistosomiasis.Keywords: Schistosoma haematobium, prevalence, infection, endemicity, intensity

Background: Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease affecting all warm blooded animals including man. It is caused by an obligate, intracellular tissues cyst-forming protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, with domestic cat and other felides as definitive hosts. The infection has aroused considerable interest from various workers because of the dangers it poses and its mode oftransmission. Materials and Methods: Sera collected from 75 volunteered abattoir workers were analysed using Toxo-Latex kit by LINEAR chemicals (Cromatest, Jeanquim Costa, Barcelona, Spain) which is a rapid slide agglutination procedure. In addition, some epidemiological factors were obtained from these volunteered through structural questionnaire administered to them. Results: The adolescent (16-20 years) had the highest prevalence (57.1%) while the elderly, aged > 60 years had prevalence of 50%. No statistical significant different was however observed (p >0.05) varying degree of infarction was observed between the old groups. Sero-prevalence among workers who eat raw meat/suya, drink unpasteurized milk, smoking/eating when evisceration were 50%, 26.7%, 13.8%, 13.8% and 20% respectively, while workers that do not eat/drink during evisceration was 13.3%. No statistical significance was noted between those who eat raw meat/suya/drink unpasteurized milk and those who eat and drink during evisceration was significantly higher than those that wash hand before eating/drinking during work (p < 0.05). Conclusion: There is need for public enlightenment to abattoir personnel on the epidemiology and significance of T. gondii infection. Further studies on toxoplasma infection in the study area are desirable.

Three trials were carried out in this study. In the first trial raw cow's milk with 6% sodium chloride was processed into cheese. In the second and third trials pasteurization temperatures of 72°C/1 min and 63°C/30 min and 2%, 4% and 6% sodium chloride and 0.02% and 0.04% calcium chloride were used in each treatment respectively. Results showed that protein, total solids and ash contents and titratable acidity were significantly (P 0.05) effect on the fat content of cheese. However, the protein, total solids and ash contents were significantly (P<0.001) higher in cheese made without added calcium chloride. There was no significant difference in the titratable acidity in cheese with two levels of calcium chloride

An investigation was carried out to determine the prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that cause toxoplasmosis among HIV positive individuals in Sokoto, Nigeria. Twenty-two (26.1%) of the 84 HIV screened positive sera had antibody to T. gondii infection. Lower titer of 1: 4 occurred in 2(9.1%) of the sera, and the sera from patients that were in the age group 50-59 had the highest prevalence (33.3%). Based on the value of the IgG obtained with enzyme Immunosorbent Assay (EIA), using the ImmunoComb (R) IgG(Orgenics) the concentration of >50 IU/ml were observed among 14 (63.6%) of the sera sampled, an indication of chronic phase of toxoplasmosis. These results showed that the HIV sero-negative patients need to be adequately counseled on the prevention of toxoplasmosis and any other infections that can always aggravate the illness and to initiate appropriate prophylaxis.

This study has determined the prevalence and intensity of geohelminth infections and the effect of some epidemiological factors on their distribution in Oba Ile, Osun State, Nigeria. The study was conducted between November 2004 and March 2005. Of 489 school children examined, 76.9% harboured Ascaris lumbricoides while 54.6% and 29.2% had hookworm and Trichuris trichiura respectively. The prevalence and intensity of all the three species of geohelminths significantly (p

The transformation of dracunculiasis from an obscure and neglected rural disease to the highly visible target of a national eradication campaign in Nigeria is described in this report. This process progressed through four overlapping stages: documentation of the extent and nature of the disease as a national problem, demonstration in Nigeria that dracunculiasis could be effectively prevented by targeted provision and use of protected rural water supplies, mobilization for community participation in, and political support of, the eradication effort, and implementation of interventions nationwide. The conduct of the first national village-by-village search for cases and documentation of the adverse socioeconomic impact of the disease (e.g., on rice production) in Nigeria were the key elements used to solicit greater attention to the problem and mobilize support for its eradication. The critical role of the mass media in this effort and other benefits of this mobilization strategy are also highlighted.

A prospective and cross‐sectional study was carried out in various communities in Kwara State, Nigeria, to access the status and implications of urinary schistosomiasis among schoolchildren. Of 425 pupils examined in nine communities, 193 (45.4%) were infected. Infection rates for boys (44.7%) and girls (47.9%) were not significantly different ( p > 0.5). Children between 11 and 13 years of age had the highest incidence rates (33.6%). However, the percentage of children (25.9%) excreting at least 1000 eggs per 10 ml of urine sample during their first decade of life was significantly higher ( p < 0.01) than for older pupils. The health implications of schistosomiasis acquired early in life, as in this study, are highlighted in the discussion.

Of all the countries in the world, Nigeria has the greatest number of persons with onchocerciasis (Fig. I), now accounting for over a third of the global prevalence. Among factors responsible for this are: the large size of the country and its huge population; conditions in many parts of the country that favour sustained trans- mission and that hinder large-scale con- trol operations; the absence, until recently, of any sustained nationwide control effort and the fact that Nigeria was not originally included in the success- fully established Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP)in West Africa. In Nigeria, there are currently about seven million infected peo,~le, 40 million living at risk of infection in endemic areas, over 120 000 cases of blindness ~ and many thousands with other disabling complications of the disease. Thus, onchocerciasis is a significant public health and socioeconomic problem which interferes with the government's special programmes to promote self- sufficiency in food production, to pro- vide a better life for rural dwellers and to reach the goal of primary health care (PHC) for all. A comprehensive account of the his- tory of onchocerciasis in Nigeria and a review of the disease, its vectors and attempts at its control prior to 1980 have been well described elsewhere 2.

Guinea worm disease, dracunculiasis, is widespread in rural Nigeria, where an estimated 2.5 million cases occur every year. This study documents the use of multiple intervention strategies, based on community self-help in collaboration with health researchers, to eliminate Guinea worm in the village of Igbon, in Oyo State, Nigeria. In November 1978 the village had a point prevalence rate of 59% at the height of the period of patency and disease transmission. Advised by the university-based researchers who conducted the survey, villagers combined in a series of cooperative efforts which culminated in the construction of wells which provided them with a protected water supply. Since 1982 no cases of Guinea worm have been recorded in the village. Igbon is now free from its annual 'festival of agony', the village has increased in population, and economic activities flourish. Self-help activities such as those carried out in Igbon could be a very useful part of the current Guinea worm eradication campaign in Nigeria.

To evaluate the efficacy of pyrimethamine on the blood stage (suppressive prophylaxis) and liver stage (causal prophylaxis) of Plasmodium falciparum in pregnant women, in vivo and in vitro field studies were conducted in Ilorin, Nigeria, from Jan 1 to June 30, 1988. For pregnant women with P falciparum infections who received 25 mg of pyrimethamine weekly for suppressive prophylaxis, 67% (59/88) of in vivo and 60% (6/10) of in vitro tests showed pyrimethamine resistance. A second group of parasitaemic and parasite-free pregnant women was enrolled to evaluate the efficacy of pyrimethamine as a primary tissue schizonticide; after receiving a curative dose of chloroquine (25 mg/kg), half the women were given 25 mg of pyrimethamine weekly and half received no prophylaxis. Parasitologic failure rates did not differ between the pyrimethamine-treated (8/34) and the control (11/37) groups during the 16-week follow-up. Thus, pyrimethamine is not effective for suppressive or causal prophylaxis in pregnant women in Ilorin.

An outbreak of cutaneous larva migrans in a household is described. The attention of practising physicians, health authorities and the populace is directed at the increasing prevalence of this otherwise rare disease, as well as the need for a comprehensive programme to rid the community of unwanted domesticated animals.

This paper demonstrates that protected water supplies, in the form of boreholes, can reduce the prevalence of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease) in affected communities from a point prevalence of greater than or equal to 50% to 0% or near 0% within 3 years of intervention. Studies in Nigeria show that boreholes sited within a village and used exclusively for drinking water are most effective, while less accessible or malfunctioning boreholes have a less dramatic impact on prevalence. In contrast to the situation in villages served with boreholes, the prevalence of guinea worm in the unserved villages remained almost unchanged. The rapid benefits of protected rural water supplies and the decline of dracunculiasis, including the rise in school enrollment and fall in the rate of school absenteeism, are highlighted together with other socioeconomic benefits.

A study was carried out in the Babana District of Borgu Local Government Areas in Kwara State, Nigeria, to determine the prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among schoolchildren. Of 425 pupils found and examined in nine communities, 193 (45.4%) were infected. Infection rates for boys and girls (44.7% and 47.9%, respectively) were not significantly different (P greater than 0.5). Children between 11 years and 13 years of age had the highest prevalence (59.2%), while those between 5 years and 7 years had the lowest (33.6%). However, the proportion (25.9%) of children excreting at least 1000 eggs/10-ml urine sample during their first decade of life was significantly higher (P less than 0.01) than for pupils who were older. There was a positive relationship between schistosomal infection and the prevalence of haematuria and proteinuria. Thus, the prevalences of haematuria and proteinuria were significantly higher among the infected than among the non-infected pupils (P less than 0.01). All the pupils with heavy haematuria (n = 45) and those with heavy proteinuria (n = 14) had at least 150 eggs/10-ml urine sample and 1000 eggs/10-ml urine sample, respectively.

This paper presents a preliminary assessment of the distribution and endemicity of dracunculiasis in Nigeria. The disease is found in all 19 States of the Federation and in the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja. It occurs in areas with a dry season of more than nine months as well as those with a dry season of less than four months; the seasonal distribution of rainfall influences the peak period of disease transmission and patency. Altogether, an estimated 2.5 million cases occur every year, and at least 30% of the entire rural population is at risk from the infection. The widespread distribution of dracunculiasis throughout the country indicates the need for a national control campaign and a sustained programme of international cooperation.

A study was made in five rural districts of Kwara State, Nigeria to assess the possible use of 'leopard skin' (Ls) as a rapid diagnostic technique for estimating the endemicity of African onchocerciasis. The findings revealed that there is a positive association between the percentage of subjects with skin microfilariae (mf) and the percentage with Ls. The prevalence of Ls less than 1% suggests communities with sporadic infection, 1-6% suggests hypoendemic communities and greater than 6% suggests meso- or hyperendemic communities, using mf rates of less than 10%, 10-39%, 40-69% and 70% or greater as the standard to classify sporadic, hypoendemic, mesoendemic and hyperendemic levels of the infection, respectively. The unique merits of Ls as a potential onchocercal index are presented.

A house-to-house screening exercise was carried out in Shao, Kwara State, Nigeria, to determine the status of onchocerciasis in the town. The results of skin snips taken from 2018 subjects revealed that, with an overall infection rate of 54.6%, the community is mesoendemic for river blindness. The prevalence and intensity of the infection were significantly higher for adults than for children, for males than for females and for farmers than for other occupational groups (P less than 0.01). The severity and frequency of occurrence of striking manifestations of onchocerciasis, including blindness, hernias, hanging groins, 'leopard skin' and scrotal elephantiasis, strongly suggest that the community had a history of long-standing onchocerciasis. The desirability for the implementation of a nation-wide control programme in Nigeria to complement the ongoing control efforts in the Volta River Basin Areas, is highlighted.