One of the recurring themes in the fight against HIV and other STDs is the recognition that although many of the tools needed to control the spread of disease do exist, they are not widely used or available. The female condom is one such tool, and an effective microbicide will also add to the number of options at a woman’s disposal. Ensuring that these tools are available to women and couples should be policy and program planning priorities. For women who are vulnerable and are unable to negotiate the use of male condoms or to refuse sex, the female condom and microbicides are vital options. To meet the needs of these women, we must ensure the allocation of adequate resources for microbicide development and trials, the procurement of female condoms, and the provision of the necessary support for women and men who choose to use these options.

This paper reviews the situation of women and HIV/AIDS in Africa. It notes that African women are still not equipped to assert themselves in a world that men control the main factor influencing their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. This vulnerability to HIV/AIDS as well as the impact of the epidemic on womens lives nearly spans across their entire life. Statistics show that girls and young women have the highest and fastest growing rates of HIV and sexually transmitted diseases. From this perspective four issues are considered as priorities for future efforts addressing the issue. These include: 1) the need to meet women where they are by recognizing the contexts in which they live; 2) the need to remember that women and men experience stigma differently; 3) the need to address gender inequities as they affect sexual behavior and resource access; and 4) the need to develop true partnerships between men and women in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Overall achieving partner transformation requires support at policy and community levels.

The purpose of this study was to generate data on the relative prevalences of the HIV-1 subtypes circulating in Nigeria. A total of 252 HIV-1-positive samples collected during an epidemiologic survey conducted in April 1996 were genetically characterized by HMA (heteroduplex mobility assay) and/or sequencing. Samples were collected in Lagos, Calabar, Kano, and Maiduguri. Overall, the predominant env subtypes were A (61.3%) and G (37.5%). Subtype A is more prevalent in the south (p < 0.001), about 70% in Lagos and Calabar, whereas a quarter of the samples was classified as subtype G in these states. In contrast, subtype G is predominant in the north ( < 0.001), representing 58% of the samples in Kano. In the northeastern region, Maiduguri, almost similar proportions of subtype A and G were seen, 49 and 47.4%, respectively. A total of 37 samples was also sequenced in the p24 region from the gag gene; 13 (35%) had discordant subtype designations between env and gag. The majority of the gag (12 of 17) and env (14 of 22) subtype A sequences clustered with the A/G-IBNG strain. Within subtype G, three different subclusters were seen among the envelope sequences. These different subclusters are observed among samples obtained from asymptomatic individuals and AIDS patients from the four Nigerian states studied. In conclusion, we observed a limited number of HIV-1 subtypes circulating in Nigeria, with subtypes A and G being the major env subtypes responsible for the HIV-1 epidemic. Nevertheless, the high rate of recombinant viruses (A/G) and the different A/G recombinant structures indicate a complex pattern of HIV-1 viruses circulating in this country.

Most efforts to characterize sequence variation of HIV isolates has been directed toward the structural envelope gene. Few studies have evaluated the sequence variability of auxiliary genes such as nef. In this study 41 new HIV-1 strains, representing the majority of the described envelope subtypes of HIV-1 (A to H), were genetically characterized in the nef region. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 34 strains could be classified in the same subtype in nef and env, and 7 (19%) of the 41 new viruses were recombinants. For two of the seven strains, recombination occurred upstream of the nef gene, whereas for five of the seven strains recombination occurred within the nef gene with a crossover close to the 5' end of the LTR (long terminal repeat). The low intersubtype distance between subtype B and D in the nef gene confirms previous observations in the pol, env, and gag genes, which suggest a common ancestor for these subtypes. The majority of all the previously described functional domains in the nef gene were relatively conserved among the different subtypes, with only minor differences being observed. The myristoylation signal among the different subtypes, with only minor differences being observed. The myristoylation signal was less conserved for subtype C, with one or more amino acid changes being observed at positions 3, 4, and 5. The highly conserved acidic region (positions 62 to 65), critical for the enhancement of viral synthesis with an increased virus growth rate, was less conserved among the subtype G strains from our study. At least three epitopic regions of the nef gene have been defined and each can be recognized by CTLs under a variety of HLA restrictions; all were also relatively well conserved between the different genetic subtypes. Despite the relatively important genetic variation in nef sequences obtained among the different genetic subtypes, functional domains and CTL epitopes were relatively well conserved. In vitro and/or in vivo studies are necessary to study the relevance of the observed differences.

In this sequence note we describe the full-length genome sequence of an HIV-1 isolate originating from the west African country of Mali. The phylogenetic tree analysis from the near full-length genome shows that the 95ML84 strain forms a separate cluster, supported by 100% of the bootstrap values, with the previously described A/G/J/? mosaic virus BFP90 from Burkina Faso. Additional analysis showed that throughout the genome the lowest diversity was seen between the 95ML84 and the BFP90 viruses, and bootscan analysis showed a similar complex genomic structure. In addition to the initial report describing the BFP90 virus as an A/G/J/? recombinant, our data show that for the BFP90 and 95ML84 strains the unclassified region corresponds to subtype I. The A/G/I/J BFP90 and 95ML84 strains represent the fifth and most complex circulating recombinant form of HIV-1 detected so far, and our data show its presence in various West African countries. Subtype I and J sequences, initially considered rare, seem to have broadened their geographical spread by way of these recombinant forms.

AIDS Research and Human RetrovirusesVol. 14, No. 14 Short Communication: Molecular Characterization of the Envelope Transmembrane Glycoprotein of 13 New Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Group O Strains from Six Different African CountriesFRÉDÉRIC BIBOLLET-RUCHE, MARTINE PEETERS, SOULEYMANE MBOUP, EULOGE EKAZA, REGINE GANDJI, JUDITH TORIMIRO, EITEL NGOLE MPOUDI, JACQUES AMBLARD, GERMAINE DIBANGA, MAMADOU SAIDOU, EKA ESU-WILLIAMS, MARLEEN VANDEN HAESEVELDE, ERIC SAMAN, and ERIC DELAPORTEFRÉDÉRIC BIBOLLET-RUCHESearch for more papers by this author, MARTINE PEETERSSearch for more papers by this author, SOULEYMANE MBOUPSearch for more papers by this author, EULOGE EKAZASearch for more papers by this author, REGINE GANDJISearch for more papers by this author, JUDITH TORIMIROSearch for more papers by this author, EITEL NGOLE MPOUDISearch for more papers by this author, JACQUES AMBLARDSearch for more papers by this author, GERMAINE DIBANGASearch for more papers by this author, MAMADOU SAIDOUSearch for more papers by this author, EKA ESU-WILLIAMSSearch for more papers by this author, MARLEEN VANDEN HAESEVELDESearch for more papers by this author, ERIC SAMANSearch for more papers by this author, and ERIC DELAPORTESearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:15 Mar 2009https://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1998.14.1281AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookXLinked InRedditEmail FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited byHIV-1 Non-Group M Strains and ART17 March 2023 | Viruses, Vol. 15, No. 3Non-M Variants of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1Clinical Microbiology Reviews, Vol. 26, No. 3Genetic Characteristics, Coreceptor Usage Potential and Evolution of Nigerian HIV-1 Subtype G and CRF02_AG Isolates14 March 2011 | PLoS ONE, Vol. 6, No. 3Development and evaluation of HIV-1 subtype RNA panels for the standardization of HIV-1 NAT assaysJournal of Virological Methods, Vol. 137, No. 2Plasma viral RNA assay in HIV-1 group O infection by real-time PCRJournal of Virological Methods, Vol. 113, No. 1Biological and genetic characteristics of HIV infections in Cameroon reveals dual group M and O infections and a correlation between SI-inducing phenotype of the predominant CRF02_AG variant and disease stageVirology, Vol. 310, No. 2High Genetic Diversity of HIV-1 Strains in Chad, West Central AfricaJAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, Vol. 33, No. 2Nucleotide sequence analysis of the accessory genes of HIV-1 group O isolatesVirus Research, Vol. 91, No. 2Amplification of a Complete Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Genome from Fecal RNA of a Wild ChimpanzeeJournal of Virology, Vol. 77, No. 3Phylogenetic Analysis of 49 Newly Derived HIV-1 Group O Strains: High Viral Diversity but No Group M-like Subtype StructureVirology, Vol. 302, No. 2Predominance of CRF02-AG and CRF06-cpx in Niger, West Africa Saidou Mamadou, Celine Montavon, Aminata Ben, Ali Djibo, Sanata Rabiou, Souleymane Mboup, Eric Delaporte, and Martine Peeters5 July 2004 | AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 18, No. 10CRF06-cpx: A New Circulating Recombinant Form of HIV-1 in West Africa Involving Subtypes A, G, K, and JJAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, Vol. 29, No. 5Evaluation of HIV Type 1 Group O Isolates: Identification of Five Phylogenetic Clusters Julie Yamaguchi, Ana S. 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Saksena5 July 2004 | AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 17, No. 7Sequence Note: Phylogenetic Analysis of Protease and Transmembrane Region of HIV Type 1 Group O Chunfu Yang, Feng Gao, Peter N. Fonjungo, Leopold Zekeng, Guido van der Groen, Danuta Pieniazek, Charles Schable, and Renu B. Lal5 July 2004 | AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 16, No. 11Predominance of Subtype A and G HIV Type 1 in Nigeria, with Geographical Differences in Their Distribution Martine Peeters, Eka Esu-Williams, Laurence Vergne, Celine Montavon, Claire Mulanga-Kabeya, Takena Harry, Akinsete Ibironke, Denis Lesage, Delphine Patrel, and Eric Delaporte5 July 2004 | AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, Vol. 16, No. 4Characterization of a Highly Replicative Intergroup M/O Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Recombinant Isolated from a Cameroonian PatientJournal of Virology, Vol. 73, No. 9HIV-1 Subtypes and Recombinants Volume 14Issue 14Sep 1998 To cite this article:FRÉDÉRIC BIBOLLET-RUCHE, MARTINE PEETERS, SOULEYMANE MBOUP, EULOGE EKAZA, REGINE GANDJI, JUDITH TORIMIRO, EITEL NGOLE MPOUDI, JACQUES AMBLARD, GERMAINE DIBANGA, MAMADOU SAIDOU, EKA ESU-WILLIAMS, MARLEEN VANDEN HAESEVELDE, ERIC SAMAN, and ERIC DELAPORTE.Short Communication: Molecular Characterization of the Envelope Transmembrane Glycoprotein of 13 New Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Group O Strains from Six Different African Countries.AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses.Sep 1998.1281-1285.http://doi.org/10.1089/aid.1998.14.1281Published in Volume: 14 Issue 14: March 15, 2009PDF download

To determine current data on HIV infection and to further confirm the presence of HIV-1 group O infection in Nigeria, 2300 samples from five states were tested for the presence of HIV antibody. A convenience sampling was obtained from pregnant women, tuberculosis (TB) patients, commercial sex workers (CSWs), blood donors, patients with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), patients with skin diseases, male clients of CSWs, outpatients suspected to have AIDS, truck drivers, and community dwellers. With the exception of pregnant women, the HIV prevalences in all these groups were high: 60.6% in CSWs, 16.2% in TB patients, 7,7% in blood donors in some states, and 16% in the rural area of Kano State. Male clients of CSWs, truck drivers, and STD patients had prevalences of 7.8%, 8.6%, and 21.2%, respectively. Regional differences in relation to HIV prevalences were observed; HIV-2 and most of the HIV-1/2 infections were found in the southern states of Nigeria. Higher HIV prevalences were observed in the north-northeast in pregnant women, TB patients, and CSWs, but for blood donors, higher rates were seen in the southeast-southwest. One asymptomatic 50-year-old woman, a community dweller in Kano, was identified to be HIV-1 group O-positive. Compared with data from national surveillance studies in 1991/1992 and 1993/1994, a substantial increase in HIV infection was observed. Our results show a growing incidence of HIV infection in Nigeria and suggest the presence of a rural HIV epidemic. The identification of HIV-1 group O in Kano shows that this virus strain is geographically widespread in Nigeria.

OBJECTIVE:To determine to what extent HIV-1 group O strains are present in different African countries.MATERIALS AND METHODS:A total of 14,682 samples of sera from a range of patients from 12 different African countries were tested. All the sera were tested with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a combination of V3 peptides from ANT-70 and MVP-5180. Samples reactive in ELISA were retested in a line immunoassay (LIA-O). Samples reactive in ELISA were also retested with an in-house Western blot to determine the presence of antibodies to gp120 of HIV-1 ANT-70. Polymerase chain reaction was performed on HIV-1 group O and group O indeterminate sera.RESULTS:Of all the sera samples tested, only 19 sera had antibodies to group O V3 peptides exclusively and 46 were indeterminate for group O infection in LIA-O. The highest prevalence of HIV-1 group O infection among HIV-positive sera was observed in Cameroon (2.1%) and neighbouring countries, 1.1% in Nigeria and 0.9% in Gabon. The lowest rates were seen in west Africa: 0.07% in Senegal, 0.14% in Togo, 0.16% in Chad and 0.3% in Niger. Group O sera were observed in almost all the population categories tested. The ANT-70 V3 peptide in LIA-O was reactive with all of the sera considered to be HIV-1 group O antibody positive by LIA, versus 78.9% for the MVP-5180 peptide. Thirteen out of 19 group O samples of sera were tested in PCR. Eight samples were identified as group O by specific group O pol and/or V3 primers; in the remaining five samples no HIV RNA could be detected. Of the indeterminate sera samples, two were identified as group O.CONCLUSION:In eight of the 12 countries tested, antibodies to group O viruses were identified. Numbers of HIV-1 group O viruses are low. Their presence is not restricted to Cameroon and neighbouring countries but can also be found in west and south-east Africa.