Monitoring the soil–plant system in forest ecosystems is crucial for preserving their ecological functions and services. This study assessed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes and ecoenzymatic stoichiometry as suitable indicators for characterizing the soil–plant system as a functional unit of ecological processes. To this end, in June 2021 six plots (1 m2 each) were selected in two typical Mediterranean forest ecotypes: a coastal stone pine forest (Pinus pinea L., PF) and a meso-hygrophilous broadleaf forest (RV). Soil samples (0–15 and 15–30 cm depth) and litter samples (40 × 40 cm) were collected and characterized in terms of physical, chemical and biochemical properties. t-tests revealed significant differences between RV and PF, indicating distinct microbial nutrient acquisition strategies. The higher C:N ratio in PF suggested lower litter quality and greater recalcitrance to microbial decomposition. Consistently, RV showed a more pronounced 13C and 15N enrichment from litter to SOM down to a 30 cm depth, confirming faster organic matter decomposition and mineralization. Enzyme activity patterns supported these findings. The higher β-glucosidase and butyrate esterase activities in RV reflected its greater microbial potential to activate biogeochemical cycles. Both forests exhibited a higher microbial demand for C and P than for N to maintain ecological stoichiometric balance, with stronger C limitation at the surface and P limitation in the subsoil, particularly in RV soil. This integrated monitoring approach provides insights into nutrient cycling and ecosystem resilience and offers tools to evaluate ecosystem functionality under changing environmental conditions, supporting sustainable forest management.

Semi-natural grasslands are high-value biodiversity hotspots that provide critical ecosystem services, yet land-use changes and shifting precipitation patterns increasingly threaten them. Understanding the ecological stability of these habitats requires high-resolution data integrating taxonomic and functional perspectives. This paper presents a multi-proxy dataset (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19052795) collected within the “CAROLINA: Impact of land-use change on climate resilience of semi-natural grasslands” project, focusing on the short-term impacts of grazing exclusion and simulated drought across three distinct Italian climatic zones: Mediterranean plains (San Rossore), Central Apennine hills (San Venanzo), and Alpine mountains (Tesino). The experimental design employs a manipulative approach using three treatment levels: grazed, as a control, grazing exclusion, and grazing exclusion + drought, with the latter simulated via rain-out shelters following the International Drought-Net protocol. The dataset integrates taxonomic diversity from floristic-vegetational surveys (88 plot × 164 species), leaf morphological functional traits for 39 species (leaf area, LA, specific leaf area, SLA, leaf dry matter content, LDMC, and plant height, H), and ecophysiological functional traits based on carbon and nitrogen elemental and stable isotope composition (δ13C, δ15N) from 37 surveyed species across the three sites. This comprehensive repository provides a foundational resource for long-term monitoring and ecological modelling of grassland responses to global change, supporting the development of effective conservation practices.

This study examines the social-ecological implications of land-use changes in Alpine pastures of the Tesino area (Eastern Alps, Trentino Alto Adige, Italy), with a particular focus on pasture-forest transitions driven by the abandonment of traditional agro-pastoral practices. An interdisciplinary research team developed a unified theoretical framework to align objectives, concepts, methods, and terminology across natural and social science disciplines. Spatio-temporal landscape dynamics, analyzed using orthophoto series and qualitative documentation of landscape transformations, revealed a progressive encroachment of forest vegetation into semi-natural grasslands driven by socio-economic and cultural drivers. Subsequently, to investigate how pasture-forest transitions affect ecosystem functioning, a representative area was selected for field-based surveys along a gradient from extensively managed pasture to mature spruce forest, including an intermediate young forest belt. A set of complementary indicators of plant functional diversity and soil multifunctionality was assessed. These indicators collectively revealed coordinated plant–soil functional strategies and trade-offs between pasture management and forest encroachment, with relevant implications for supporting, provisioning, and regulating ecosystem services. Socio-cultural services and stakeholders’ perceptions were complementarily explored through semi-structured interviews, providing contextual insights into land-use change and management preferences. Overall, the integration of natural and social science perspectives highlighted the importance of extensive land management aimed at sustaining multifunctional landscapes composed of semi-natural grazing meadows, productive forests, and protection forests, thereby supporting the resilience of Alpine social-ecological systems.

Heavy metal contamination in soil and the resulting groundwater pollution are common at many brownfield sites. Soil washing, which dissolves contaminants into a washing solution to separate them from the soil matrix, has emerged as a promising remediation strategy. This study assessed the feasibility of applying soil washing to Pb-contaminated soil collected from an industrial area within the Trieste Port Authority (Italy) through a series of leaching tests. Batch tests were conducted using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)-based extractants combined with various reducing agents to identify the most effective and environmentally sustainable washing solution. The results show that coupling EDTA with hydroxylamine hydrochloride or sodium dithionite significantly enhanced Pb solubilisation compared with EDTA alone, with dithionite emerging as the most suitable reducing agent due to its lower toxicity and reduced environmental impact. Sequential extraction tests revealed that up to 50% of total Pb could be removed after repeated washing cycles. Column leaching tests further confirmed the high efficiency of the EDTA-sodium dithionite system, achieving Pb removal rates of approximately 70% under continuous flow conditions. Overall, the results demonstrate that EDTA combined with low-dose sodium dithionite provides an effective and practical remediation strategy for heavily polluted industrial soils.

The EU Soil Monitoring and Resilience Directive (SMRD) establishes a harmonized framework for assessing soil health across Member States, focusing on chemical, physical, and biological descriptors. Currently, basal respiration is the only biological indicator of soil functionality suggested at the EU level, highlighting the need for complementary indicators that capture ecosystem processes and resilience under climate change and land management pressures.Microbial-based functional indicators represent a promising solution, as soil microorganisms rapidly respond to environmental stress and drive key biogeochemical processes. Drawing on a series of case studies, literature reviews, and findings from EU-funded projects carried out by our research group (LIFE and Next Generation EU), we emphasize the critical role of soil eco-enzymes as indicators of soil health conditions. Enzyme activities, such as β-glucosidase (BG), acid phosphatase (AP), and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG), could be suitable descriptors of functional microbial biodiversity. In view of this, soil enzyme activities could be introduced as new descriptors in the Annex I during the Directive’s scheduled revision in 2033.Microbial-released enzyme balance, under specific environmental conditions and spatial scales, could also contribute to evaluating and predicting the rate and efficiency of organic matter decomposition and immobilization, thus regulating the balance between stored C pools and CO₂ emissions. Integrating enzyme tests into SMRD monitoring protocols would provide robust descriptors of microbial processes influencing organic matter turnover. This approach strengthens the Directive’s capacity to evaluate soil health and resilience, offering a sensitive, easy-to-implement, and cost-effective functional indicators aligned with EU sustainability goals for 2050.

The GREENLIFE4SEAS project addresses two significant environmental issues that require urgent attention: the management of 200 million cubic metres of contaminated sediments dredged in the EU each year and the disposal of 490,000 tonnes of shells, one of the most significant forms of waste in the EU aquaculture sector. The research project proposes green, engineering-based solutions that transform both types of waste into valuable resources. The first versatile by-product of this ecodesign process is shell powder, which will be used as a secondary raw material alongside sediments and binders to create three innovative products in four European ports: paving blocks, breakwaters, and mass stabilisation materials. When sediments are contaminated, a preliminary decontamination process based on bioremediation technology is envisaged. A prototype of a supermobile plant equipped with additional modules will enable the products to be manufactured and replicated in situ. All activities began with multidisciplinary dialogue and multi-field research, involving bio-, geo-, hydro- and chemo aspects, as well as legislative and economic expertise. Once the results of the GREENLIFE4SEAS project have been validated, monitored and generalised using physics-based and computer-driven approaches, they will optimise the EU’s environmental policy for a circular blue economy. The worldwide exploitation and dissemination of this virtuous methodology and its innovative, top-level achievements will be facilitated by the extraordinary quadruple helix network of the GREENLIFE4SEAS partnership.

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are multidimensional, resource-efficient, and sustainable growth approaches to cope with current challenges, including biodiversity and carbon loss, pollution, climate change and land degradation. Amongst NbS, urban forestry is an important tool to enhance environmental resilience and sustainability, providing useful ecosystem services for human well-being. In this context, using suitable soil and plant indicators allows us to evaluate the efficiency of urban forestry in sustaining ecosystem functionality. Effective indicators should be sensitive to environmental changes and representative of ecological processes. Many studies focus on the selection of soil or plant indicators. The prior investigations considered soil–plant interaction and the related complex heterarchical and bidirectional effects involving plant strategy and soil biota. The choice and the use of indicators related to the soil–plant system could be an innovative strategy to better assess the following: (1) the ability of soil to support healthy plants and their ability to improve air quality; (2) the effect of urban forestry on ecological processes, in particular carbon and nutrient cycles. This review investigates the suitability of soil–plant system indicators related to nutrient cycles, e.g., ecological stoichiometry, enzyme activity and stoichiometry, and carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes, as valuable tools for planning and evaluating the effectiveness of urban forestry interventions.

Pollutants in soils are detrimental to ecosystems and agricultural production and may also be a pressing threat to human health. In this context, biochar could be used as part of nature-based solutions to remediate polluted areas. In this work, a series of innovative biochar-based strategies were tested in a soil contaminated by hydrocarbons C > 12 and copper (Cu) to investigate their effectiveness in soil decontamination and revegetation potential. Specifically, biochar was applied to soil alone (SB) or combined with bioaugmentation (SBB) and/or phytoremediation (SBP and SBBP) techniques. Overall results showed that after nine months (T9) biochar added to soil increased hydrocarbon degradation to 66.7% with respect to control soil (46%, natural attenuation). Moreover, the biochar in combination with a microbial consortium and/or plants significantly increased hydrocarbon removal by up to 90%. Concurrently, the fraction of Cu associated with organic matter, characterized by low bioavailability, increased significantly (1.4-2-fold) when biochar was applied. Soil microbial abundance increased over time in all conditions, reaching highest values in SBB and SBBP. This was associated with the higher levels of available phosphorus in the soil. The consortium's presence enhanced plant growth compared to SB. On the contrary, plants grown on contaminated soil alone were not able to survive until the end of the experiment. Overall, the results of this work make a significant contribution to the understanding of the interaction of biochar with contaminants, plants and microorganisms, providing a useful tool for future brownfield revegetation/remediation programs.

Soil contamination from heavy metals and organic pollutants represents a significant global concern. In this context, biochar and microbial communities have been identified as promising remediation tools. Indeed, the structural characteristics of biochar facilitate contaminant immobilization, while the presence of microbial communities promotes their biodegradation, thereby enhancing soil recovery. Besides, phytoremediation has been successfully applied to restore contaminated soils. Historically, the success of soil remediation has been predominantly contingent on chemical parameters. However, recent approaches have focused on soil health, fertility, and ecological function after remediation. In this framework, through phytotoxicity tests, this study investigates the phyto-compatibility of a soil contaminated with hydrocarbons and copper after the treatment with 5 distinct remediation strategies: i) natural attenuation (S), ii) treatment with biochar (SB), iii) treatment with microorganism-enriched biochar (SBB), iv) treatment with biochar and phytoremediation (SBP), and v) treatment with microorganism-enriched biochar and phytoremediation (SBBP). Moreover, chlorophyll fluorescence and untargeted metabolomics analyses were performed in plants to get a more comprehensive understanding of responses of plants grown on remediated soil. The results of this study demonstrated significant variations among the plants treated with soil recovered from the different remediation strategies. Compared to other treatments, SBB promoted L. sativum plants growth showing limited induction of stress markers. However, a certain degree of photoinhibition was observed in all treatments, highlighting the importance of characterizing the phyto-compatibility of remediated soils.

Over the past decade, research into nature-based solutions (NBS) for protecting and restoring soil health and ecosystem functionality has notably increased. The close interrelationship between the effectiveness of NBS and soil health is increasingly emphasized in the relevant scientific literature. Nevertheless, soil quality monitoring remains a much-neglected aspect of NBS approaches, both in practical implementation and in the scientific literature. To address this issue, we argue that the selection, validation, and measurement of harmonized soil indicators are essential for the effective planning and long-term management of NBS. Drawing on a series of case studies, literature reviews, and findings from European Union (EU)-funded projects, we highlight the critical role of soil indicators in assessing the performance of NBS for soil and ecosystem restoration. The EU has recently established NBS and soil health as crucial pillars on its political and executive agenda. In particular, soil is prominently featured in key initiatives such as the EU Biodiversity Strategy, the EU Soil Strategy for 2030, the Nature Restoration Law, and the Proposal on Soil Monitoring and Resilience. We conclude that the scientific community, engaging with social and political stakeholders, must spearhead efforts to identify existing gaps and develop standardized protocols for scientifically sound and practical NBS implementation. Recognizing soil health as a key factor in NBS is essential for ensuring their effectiveness, especially in the face of climate change and extreme weather events.

Soil-plant indicators are useful to select tree species suitable for the urban conditions and to maximize the benefits provided by green infrastructures (GE). To identify effective indicators for GE, soil-plant nutrient interaction and related physiological responses were assessed in evergreen (Cupressus sempervirens L.) and deciduous (Acer opalus Mill., Acer rubrum L., Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Ulmus ‘Plinio’) tree species, in a novel urban GE (Florence, Italy). Soil and leaf nutrient contents and the soil enzyme stoichiometry were applied as indicators of plant nutrient status and bioavailability. Gas exchange and stable isotopes of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) were used as indicators of tree physiological status and resource-use strategies, respectively. The soil was suitable for tree growth, however, the enzyme activities estimated N limited condition. Trees differed in leaf nutrient composition and stoichiometry. Acer rubrum and A. opalus leaves had manganese concentration below and above the plant optimal range, respectively, leading to alteration in the nutrient uptake and on the leaf stoichiometry between C, N and phosphorus (C: N:P), with consequence for tree health status. Tilia platyphyllos and Ulmus ‘Plinio’ had the best photosynthetic performance, while photosynthesis in A. rubrum was severely impaired. Interspecific differences in N- and water-use strategies were observed. Tilia platyphyllos showed the highest water-use efficiency, leaf C: P and N: P compared to the other species. Tree nutritional and physiological traits gave insights into soil-plant nutrient interaction and may be proposed as useful indicators for choosing the most suitable species to improve GE management in urban environments.

In semiarid environments, vine cultivation is a land use with a high impact with regard to soil erosion, loss of organic matter and biodiversity, contamination, and compaction. In addition, the wine supply chain produces a considerable quantity of organic waste, which remains as residues in the ecosystem. Within this context, we developed a sustainable vine management system to improve the efficient use of fertilisers by applying a by-product derived from the composting of winery wastes and zeolite. We evaluated the effects of the zeolite-based compost on the chemical, physical, and biochemical soil properties of a productive vineyard. Four treatments were set up and monitored for about two years. These were as follows: (1) Commercial compost (COM); (2) Zeolite (Z); (3) 30% zeolite and 70% winery waste compost (30 ZEO); (4) 10% zeolite and 90% winery waste compost (10 ZEO). The results demonstrated that the ZEO treatments could be considered a win–win solution able to improve soil water content, nutrient retention, carbon sequestration, and biochemical activity while also recycling wastes. In particular, 10 ZEO seems to be the amendment that best combines an improvement in soil biochemical properties with gradual and constant nutrient availability, thus satisfying, without exceeding, soil and plant needs.

Co-composting efficiently reclaims dredged sediments (S) and green waste (GW), creating stable products for agricultural applications. However, the use of S-GW co-composts can be limited by legislative thresholds, especially for co-composts with a high S percentage. The evaluation of S-GW co-compost stability by biological assessment can allow for a better understanding of S and GW recycling, as well as the S-GW co-compost application. For this purpose, the microbial biomass, composition, respiration, and eco-enzyme stoichiometry (EST) were assessed, coupled with chemical analysis, in the co-composting of S and GW in different ratios. The Photinia x fraseri and Viburnum tinus L. growth was monitored in a plant trial, comparing the studied co-composts with a control substrate. The EST approach was applied as an indicator of the co-composting stability during the process and after the plant cultivation. The chemical and biological parameters confirmed the suitability of co-composting in the GW and S recovery and the EST approach highlighted a better stability for the 3S:1GW co-compost at the end of the process and after plant cultivation. Viburnum tinus showed a similar growth to the control, while Photinia x fraseri resulted in being more sensitive to the co-compost. The biological assessments were good indicators of the S-GW compost stability for their application in crop cultivation.

The high variability in composition and quality of green residues, especially those derived from the nursery sector, limits their recovery and recycling. Vermicomposting (VC) is a promising sustainable technology for recycling green residues from nurseries. This transforms them into nutrient-enriched resources thanks to its ability to degrade recalcitrant materials. We tested VC using a circular economy approach to recover various green lignocellulosic residues, i.e., dry chopped green waste (GW), sawdust (SW) and woodchips (WC), from local nurseries (Pistoia, Italy). Different mixture proportions were used (100

The paper aims to valorise winery waste into a co-composting process with natural clinoptilolite zeolite to improve the agronomic value of compost and simultaneously achieve sustainable recycling of organic wastes. The innovation of this study lies in the role of natural zeolite in winery waste valorisation and recycling. The winery waste materials after the harvest were composted in the presence of natural clinoptilolite zeolite at the following rates: (1) zeolite 0

This study aimed to assess the feasibility of the ecoenzymatic stoichiometry and isotope signature approaches as indicators of urban soil functionality, related to carbon and nutrient cycles. In Pisa and Livorno (Italy), study sites with three degrees of urbanization (natural, peri-urban and central urban sites) were selected, where holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) was the most common evergreen species. The urban and peri-urban sites differed in terms of NO2 emissions. At each site, topsoil and plant litter were sampled, pH, EC, TOC, and TN were measured in soil and δ13C and δ15N in soil and plant litter. The β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase enzyme activities were also determined in soil and the ratios were calculated. The δ15N in plant litter increased from peri-urban to urban sites, along with the NO2 emissions, emerging as a sensitive indicator of atmospheric N deposition. The δ15N and δ13C increased in soil, indicating more rapid N cycles and organic matter degradation in peri-urban and urban areas than in natural areas. The ecoenzymatic stoichiometry revealed C and P microbial limitations for all the sites studied. However, the microbial needs of C and P increased and decreased, respectively, along the urbanization gradient. Isotope abundance and microbial nutrient limitations were found to correlate with soil properties. Specifically, soil δ15N was closely correlated with microbial C limitations. The isotope signature and enzymatic stoichiometry used as indicators revealed that the soil characteristics affected the soil carbon and nutrient cycles as well as microbial energy and nutrient needs.

Co-composting is suitable technology for recycling dredged sediments (S) and green wastes (GW), whose recovery are limited by their contamination and variability in composition, respectively. Some limitations in the process have been previously detected (e.g., limited thermophilic phase and low organic carbon content in the final product), thus restricting the use of co-compost for agricultural purposes. To optimize the co-composting and extend the application of the co-compost, the GW content in the piles (3S:1GW, 1S:1GW and 1S:3GW) and the pile volumes was increased. At the end of the process, the co-compost properties were compared to current legislation. The co-composting’s impact on the environment and its possible replacement of peat were also assessed by LCA. Maturity and stability were reached in all piles: enzyme activities (< 2214–39 µmol g−1 h−1), electrical conductivity, total organic carbon, phytotoxicity (GI > 100