Microplastics (MPs) have increasingly been recognized as emerging contaminants of environmental and human health concern. MPs are described as plastic particles with dimensions between 1 μm and 1 mm (ISO in ISO 24187:2023—principles for the analysis of microplastics present in the environment, 2023). MPs can be divided into primary, which are intentionally developed with these dimensions, and secondary, generated through the environmental degradation and fragmentation of larger plastic items, driven by physical, chemical, and biological processes (Song et al. in ACS ES T Water 4(6):2330–2332, 2024). MPs have been detected in all environmental compartments: sea (Muñiz and Rahman in J Hazard Mater Adv 18:100663, 2025), oceans (Zhao et al. in Nature 641(8061):51–61, 2025), soil (Sajjad et al. in Environ Technol Innov 27: 102408, 2022), sediments (Yin in Sci Total Environ 859:160323, 2023), atmosphere (Amato-Lourenço et al. in Sci Total Environ 821:153450–153450, 2022), organisms (Jeong et al. in Emerg Contam 10(4):100369, 2024), and humans (Saha and Saha in Heliyon 10(2):e24355, 2024).

Microplastic (MP) pollution is now recognized as a global environmental threat and one of the most urgent challenges for ecosystems and human health. MPs persist in the environment and act as carriers of chemical species (Wang 2020) including additives, persistent organic pollutants, and polymer degradation products. Despite numerous studies, the interactions between MPs, associated contaminants, organisms and ecosystems remain insufficiently understood (Barcelò 2023; Thompson 2024). A variety of analytical techniques have been developed to study MPs and co-occurring pollutants. Among these, pyrolysis-based methods have proven particularly effective, as they allow mass-based quantification of different polymers together with the identification of associated organic contaminants (La Nasa 2020; Akoueson 2021). However, the analysis often requires labor-intensive pretreatments that vary depending on the complexity of the environmental or biological matrix (Lykkemark 2024). To address the limitations of conventional multi-step sample preparation, we evaluated microwave-assisted extraction and digestion as integrated and efficient alternatives. The approach combines microwave-assisted extraction with thermal desorption and pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC–MS), enabling the characterization and quantification of several classes of pollutants, including phthalate plasticizers, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, and contaminants of emerging concern. In parallel, the same samples were subjected to microwave-assisted digestion, which was optimized to reduce polymer degradation while allowing reliable quantification of microplastics. This combined workflow provides a rapid and comprehensive overview of both polymeric and non-polymeric contaminants within complex biological matrices. Even though current methods enable the characterization of microplastics (MPs) and associated contaminants, they generally do not allow the analysis of both classes of compounds from the same sample. To overcome this limitation, a one-pot microwave-assisted pretreatment was optimized to provide a comprehensive overview of MPs and co-occurring contaminants within a single workflow. Mussels exposed to polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and nylon-6 (N6) were used as a model matrix, chosen for their high protein and lipid content as well as their importance as bioindicators of marine pollution. This rapid and integrated method reduces sample preparation time, improves efficiency, and opens the way for applications to other biological matrices, including human samples. Such an approach is essential for assessing MP exposure and co-contaminant burdens and has direct implications for environmental risk assessment and public health.

Indoor environments are increasingly recognized as notable reservoirs and exposure pathways for airborne microplastics (AMPs). This narrative review shows the outcomes from 57 observational studies published between 2017 and 2025, focusing on the occurrence, abundance, and characteristics of MPs in residential and collective indoor spaces. Methodological variability strongly affects the comparability of results. In sampling, 56 % of studies used active air collection, 37 % passive techniques, and 5 % combined strategies. Different pretreatment and analytical approaches were employed, including microscopy, & micro;-FTIR, & micro;-Raman, and Py-GC-MS. Reported concentrations range from 0.5 to 14,088 MPs/m & sup3; in residential settings and from 2 to 8305 MPs/m & sup3; in collective environments, exceeding outdoor control levels (mean similar to 260 MPs/m & sup3;) by 1 to 2 orders of magnitude. Temporal and spatial variability is a key factor influencing concentrations, along with synthetic textiles, limited ventilation, finishing materials, the number of occupants, and seasonal effects. Fibers dominate in most indoor spaces, with polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, and nylon as the most frequently identified polymers. The human exposure assessment suggests AMP intake ranging from hundreds to several thousand particles per day, with children potentially assuming higher doses per body weight. However, variability in dose metrics limits comparability across studies. Overall, the findings underscore indoor air as a critical but underexplored exposure pathway, with significant knowledge gaps regarding methodologies and toxicological implications. This review outlines unmet needs and proposes a roadmap to move towards harmonized protocols integrating toxicological assays as priorities to strengthen risk assessment and inform mitigation strategies for AMPs in indoor environments.

The omnipresence of plastic in modern society has made human exposure to microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) inevitable. These synthetic particles, defined as polymer fragments smaller than 5 mm, have been detected in virtually every environmental compartment, from remote mountain plateaus to deep ocean trenches, and within the confined spaces where humans spend most of their lives (European Commission in Amending Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council as Regards Synthetic Polymer Microparticles,2023; Mitrano and Wohlleben in Nat Commun 11:1–12, 2020). As plastic materials fragment through mechanical wear, UV degradation, and chemical weathering, MPs are released into air, water, food, and dust, forming an inescapable component of the anthropogenic exposome (Frias and Nash in Mar Pollut Bull 138:145–147, 2019; Thompson et al. in Science 386(6720), 2024; Prata et al. in Sci Total Environ 777, 2021).

Airborne microplastics (AMPs) are increasingly recognized as an emerging occupational hazard (Boccia et al. 2024; Zarus et al. 2023) due to their persistence, small size, and potential to penetrate deep into the human respiratory tract (Gasperi et al. 2018). While environmental studies have widely documented the ubiquity of microplastics (Kochanek et al. 2025; Loganathan and Kizhakedathil 2023), the occupational dimension remains comparatively underexplored, despite the fact that plastic-processing industries are likely to represent hotspots of exposure. Operations such as cutting, grinding, shredding, and secondary processing release particles into the air, potentially generating significant concentrations within production halls.

Historical marine plastic pollution records are valuable but scarce. We show that agglutinated foraminifera that incorporate sediment into their tests can serve as bioarchives of plastic pollution. Using pyrolysis–GC–MS with matrix-matched calibration, we quantified plastic-derived polymers in historical specimens (1911–1952) across oceans, with elevated concentrations detected in post-1950 samples. Our results demonstrate the potential of historical foraminifera for tracking and reconstructing long-term marine pollution.

Microplastic (MP) pollution is currently detected in all the (Geyer et al. 2017) main environmental compartments, from terrestrial (VaraPrasad et al. 2022) to freshwater (Wang et al. 2022) and marine systems (Carbery et al. 2018), and the associated environmental and health hazards (Betts 2008) have been the focus of intense social, scientific, and political attention. However, MP detection is nowadays still one of the biggest technological challenges, representing a new analytical issue. There is an increased need for developing standardized protocols for the sampling, quantification, and characterization of MP. These include also data treatment and visualization, which are crucial to compare different studies. Several efforts have been devoted to establish harmonized and traceable procedures. Among others, hyperspectral imaging systems represent potential cost and time effective methods, enabling a direct detection of MP when applied directly on filters without heavy sample purification and manipulations, thus avoiding potential procedural bias related to particle pre-sorting steps. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) integrates spectral and spatial information, generating chemical maps in which each pixel contains a full spectrum. This approach enables precise identification of chemical constituents, mapping of their spatial distribution, and detection of subtle compositional variations. The resulting multidimensional datasets, may provide robust tools for material characterization. Recently, near infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) has been evaluated as a technique for identifying MP directly on the filters (Piarulli et al. 2022; Vidal and Pasquini 2021). However, the use of HSI in monitoring campaigns may generate large volumes of data difficult to process and interpret. In this context, chemometric methods are emerging as essential tools for the processing and interpretation of chemical data obtained through spectroscopic techniques. These methods enable data dimensionality reduction and visualization, reducing time required for data processing and interpretation and producing graphical outcomes that can be compared among monitoring campaigns or for the integration of different results. Explorative and unmixing methods can be applied to enhance spectral features of MPs in complex matrices, identified diagnostic markers for their discrimination. To this aim, different explorative and unmixing methods have been tested and developed to determine the chemical composition to enhance the efficiency of polymer recognition. In particular, masking procedures for background removal and advanced algorithms based on multivariate data compression were explored, to enhance the spectral signal features of MP with respect to the filters used. This contribution reports the application of a HSI analysis exploiting Mid Infrared (4000–675 cm−1) applied on cellulose filter, in combination with different tailored chemometric methods for data processing. In particular, an automated normalised difference image (NDI) strategy and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied and compared.

The south of the province of Valencia (Spain) is characterised by high flood risk and, in October 2024, J & uacute;car River tributaries were partially responsible for catastrophic floods in the area related to the influence of global warming. The floods carried large amounts of water and sediment and, with them, many pollutants such as microplastics (MPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Co-occurrence of MPs and PAHs was investigated in water, sediment and fish samples from the J & uacute;car River basin to set a benchmark of pollution in this flood susceptible area, only four months before the October 2024 catastrophe. Extractions were optimized based on matrix and compound type. Analyses were performed by micro-FTIR, Pyrolysis coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) and GC-MS/MS, and ecological and human health risks were, also, estimated for the determined pollutants. Both MPs and PAHs were detected in the majority of samples, with higher concentrations near the river mouth (up to 100 f 3.8 MPs Kg-1 and 2017.4 f 107.8 ng g-1 of total PAHs), located close to the metropolitan area of Valencia and its industrial zone. One fish sample (A. alburnus) presented a concentration of 19.97 f 1.1 mu g g-1 of polypropylene (PP) and was contaminated by 11 PAHs, including benzo[a]pyrene (14.2 f 1.2 ng g-1). Incremental life cancer risk values for MPs and PAHs ranged from 1.7 x 10-6 to 3.1 x 10-4 for all water samples where PAHs were detected, and for the highly polluted fish sample (14.5 x 10-3 and 7.7 x 10-5), indicating potential risk. Principal component analysis (PCA) suggested positive correlation between PP, benzo[a]pyrene and potential cancer risk. This is the first study that provides data on both MPs and PAHs ecological and human health risk assessment in the same environmental samples from a river catchment and establish a benchmark for these pollutants before flooding.

Street art murals are increasingly recognized as valuable contemporary artworks, often attaining significant artistic, historical, and social importance. As these murals become integral parts of cultural heritage, finding efficient strategies for their conservation is crucial. However, their typical large surface areas, heterogeneous materials, and high variability in exposure to environmental and pollution factors pose significant challenges in establishing appropriate analytical strategies to obtain the necessary information. This study proposes a multiscale and multitechnique noninvasive approach to investigate and monitor street art murals in situ. By combining portable point techniques-such as external reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, visible, near infrared, and short-wave infrared reflectance spectroscopy, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy-with visible and near infrared hyperspectral imaging, the mural's composition across a square meter surface could be analyzed. Additionally, multispectral imaging mounted on a drone provided a global reconstruction and characterization of the overall mural. This method was complemented by microdestructive laboratory analyses of selected samples, using pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector and tandem mass spectrometry, to further investigate selected samples and support noninvasive results. The approach was applied to the iconic mural "Musica Popolare" (2017) by Orticanoodles in Milan, Italy, revealing detailed information about its pigments, binders, fillers, and degradation. The findings demonstrate the potential of this integrated methodology for the effective material identification, conservation assessment, and short-and long-term monitoring of urban heritage.

In recent years, graffiti and street art have gained recognition as legitimate art forms, deserving of the same care and attention as traditional art. As a result, conservators and restorers are now working to develop standardized guidelines for the cleaning, conservation, and restoration of these vibrant works. Our study takes a closer look at the materials used in street art, specifically the spray varnishes used by artists. Samples from two murals created in 2021 in Bari, Italy, are analyzed using a range of advanced techniques such as attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled with UV-Vis and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (MS), and laser desorption ionization MS as well as pyrolysis-gas chromatography/MS. Acrylic, polyvinyl acetate, and styrene-acrylic resins are identified as the primary binders used in street art spray varnishes, along with common additives such as polyethylene and polypropylene glycol. The organic dyes and pigments, such as yellow (PY74), orange (PO36), red (rhodamine), and blue (phthalocyanine) hues used to create colorful images of street art, are also characterized. This study demonstrates the importance of a multitechnique approach in understanding the complex chemistry of modern spray varnishes used in street art.

Wet wipes are used as disposable products for personal hygiene care, domestic cleaning, and sanitary use. Increased use of wet wipes as a consequence of the global COVID-19 pandemic, along with the introduction of labelling to indicate that some wipes can be disposed of by flushing or are biodegradable, raise concerns about the risks associated to the release of microfibres and chemicals when wet wipes enter the sewage system and the environment. A key step in the study of the behaviour and fate of the impact of the disposal of single use wet wipes is their physical-chemical characterisation in terms of fibres and additives. We designed and applied a multi-analytical protocol based on evolved gas analysis-mass spectrometry (EGA-MS) and multi-shot pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), along with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), to identify the chemical composition of the constituent materials of commercial wet wipes. Four different classes of wet wipes - certified and non-certified flushable, biodegradable, conventional - comprising a total of 12 types of samples were analysed in terms of fibre composition and organic additives. EGA-MS and Py-GC-MS analysis confirmed that all flushable and biodegradable wipe samples were only composed of cellulose-based fibres, whereas poly(propylene) and poly(ethylene terephthalate) were detected, along with cellulose, in the conventional wipes. The two techniques proved also effective in the detection of additives like benzoic acid/sodium benzoate, 2-phenoxyethanol, glycerine etc. SEM analysis allowed the discrimination between natural and regenerated cellulose fibres. The analytical protocol could be further developed to examine wet wipe degradation, the potential environmental effects of additives, and assess their impact in environmental samples.

Polyethylene nanoplastics (NPs) are widely diffused in terrestrial environments, including soil ecosystems, but the stress mechanisms in plants are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the effects of two increasing concentrations of NPs (20 and 200 mg kg−1 of soil) in lettuce. To this aim, high-throughput hyperspectral imaging was combined with metabolomics, covering both primary (using NMR) and secondary metabolism (using LC-HRMS), along with lipidomics profiling (using ion-mobility-LC-HRMS) and plant performance.Hyperspectral imaging highlighted a reduced plant growth pattern. Several vegetative indexes indicated plant toxicity, with 20 mg kg−1 NPs significantly decreasing lettuce density and vegetation health (as indicated by NDVI and plant senescence reflectance indexes). Consistently, photosynthetic activity also decreased.At the biochemical level, metabolomics and lipidomics pointed out a multi-layered broad biochemical reprogramming of primary and secondary metabolism involving a decrease in sterols, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and glycerophospholipids in response to NPs. The reduction in phosphatidylinositol coincided with an accumulation of diacylglycerols (DAG), suggesting the activation of the phospholipase C lipid signaling pathway. Moreover, nanoplastic treatments down-modulated different biosynthetic pathways, particularly those involved in N-containing compounds and phenylpropanoids. Our mechanistic basis of NPs stress in plants will contribute to a better understanding of their environmental impact.

The chemical investigation of modern art materials and synthetic paint materials has been a major focus of research in cultural heritage science over the past decade. Since the 1970s, street art has become an influential cultural movement with significant artistic and social impact in modern cities, and the conservation of relevant artworks related to urban neo-muralism has been increasingly recognized. Understanding these materials is critical to developing conservation strategies, as their composition continues to change with industrial innovation and regulatory changes. This study presents the application of an analytical approach that integrates chemical mapping based on spectroscopic approaches together with analytical pyrolysis, chromatography, and mass spectrometry to investigate two key case studies and provide insights into the evolution of street art materials over the past 30 years. This comprehensive approach provides a deeper understanding of the composition and transformation of urban art materials over time, overcoming the limitations of individual methods and revealing both organic and inorganic materials. This combined approach represents the state of the art in the study of synthetic paints used in modern art and provides new insights into the evolution of the formulation of materials used by street artists.

Microplastics (MPs) are considered one of the most widespread pollutants in all ecosystems worldwide. In the environment, MPs can undergo hydrolysis and/or oxidation, resulting in the release of low-molecular weight degradation products, along with additives, and adsorbed organic pollutants. In this study, the morphological, chemical, and thermal changes of microplastics obtained from two biodegradable plastics, polylactic acid and Mater-Bi®, and a recycled plastic, recycled-polyethylene terephthalate, were examined after accelerated ageing under photo-oxidative conditions in synthetic seawater in a Solarbox system, and after thermal treatment in the dark. Thermal properties were studied by thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and evolved gas analysis-mass spectrometry. Compositions and changes of chemical components of the polymers were evaluated by attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The leachable fractions and degradation products released in synthetic seawater by degraded MPs were characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. This study allowed us to identify hydrolysis as the main degradation pathway of the polymers under analysis, and to characterize not only the oligomers and degradation products released in the water as a consequence of degradation, but also additives used in plastic item formulations. This study improves our understanding of these polymers' behavior under accelerated ageing conditions.

The National Museum of Transylvanian History in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, features a History of Pharmacy Collection that documents the evolution of pharmacies in the region since the 16th century. Within the “Pharmatrans” project (2021–2023), we investigated the chemical composition of ointments from fourteen historical pharmaceutical containers dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. Most samples were from an aristocratic traveling medicine chest, a key artifact in the collection. This study marks the first extensive analysis of historical pharmaceutical formulations in Romania, enhancing our understanding of these valuable items. The main ingredients of formulations were characterized using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), solid-phase microextraction–GC–MS (SPME–GC–MS), and pyrolysis–GC–MS (Py–GC–MS). Additionally, high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-Q-ToF) was employed for the detailed analysis of lipid materials and polar compounds. Elemental analysis was conducted using field emission gun–scanning electron microscope (FEG–SEM) with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The results revealed that twelve out of fourteen mixtures contained interpretable organic content, often aligning with the vessels’ labels. The findings indicate that Transylvanian elites in the late 18th century had access to both rare drugs and traditional remedies, reflecting contemporary trends in pharmacy.

The widespread extensive use of synthetic polymers has led to a substantial environmental crisis caused by plastic pollution, with microplastics detected in various environments and posing risks to both human health and ecosystems. The possibility of plastic fragments to be dispersed in the air as particles and inhaled by humans may cause damage to the respiratory and other body systems. Therefore, there is a particular need to study microplastics as air pollutants. In this study, we tested a combination of analytical pyrolysis, gas chromatography -mass spectrometry, and gas and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to identify and quantify both microplastics and their additives in airborne particulate matter and settled dust within a workplace environment: a WEEE treatment plant. Using this combined approach, we were able to accurately quantify ten synthetic polymers and eight classes of polymer additives. The identified additives include phthalates, adipates, citrates, sebacates, trimellitates, benzoates, organophosphates, and newly developed brominated flame retardants.

Bioplastics are produced in growing amounts due to their environmental benefits, but their disposal routes remain ambiguous. A hydrothermal treatment (HT) may be a sustainable process to improve the fate of waste bioplastics, but nearly no information is available on how they respond to it. In this work, HT of biodegradable bioplastics was performed, and the resulting solid and liquid products were characterized by elemental analysis, analytical pyrolysis-based techniques, ion chromatography, and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. We selected tableware based on polylactic acid (PLA), cellulose, and Mater-Bi (MB) and performed HT at 160-200 degrees C. MB was identified as a mixture of PLA and polybutylene succinate (PBS). Higher treatment temperatures enhanced the solubilization, which was very marked for PLA and MB and minor for cellulose. Characterization of the solid residues revealed that PLA and MB were quantitatively degraded at 180 degrees C and above, while cellulose could never be fully degraded. The analysis of the aqueous phases from the HT of PLA and MB revealed the presence of an array of oligomers of PLA and PBS at low temperatures and of the corresponding monomers (lactic acid and succinic acid) at high temperatures: their recovery could represent a way to give new life to waste bioplastics.

Sol LeWitt, a pioneer of conceptual art, created during his career over 1350 wall drawings, including the Wall Drawing #736 (1993) at the Center for Contemporary Art Luigi Pecci in Prato (Prato, Italy). The painting, executed by Andrea Marescalchi and Antony Sansotta under LeWitt’s instructions, features a grid of coloured rectangles obtained by overlapping different layers of inks. During a 2021 restoration by the Wall Paintings and Stuccoes Department of the Opificio delle Pietre Dure (Firenze, Italy), an in-depth investigation of the composition and the materials used by LeWitt’s assistants in producing Wall Drawing #736 was performed. A multi-analytical approach entailing Raman spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array and high-resolution mass spectrometry, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and pyrolysis coupled with GC–MS was applied. Our results revealed the use of animal glue, shellac resin, paraffin wax, linseed oil, and various organic pigments. The binder in the preparation layer was identified as poly(vinyl acetate), while poly(n-butyl methacrylate) was determined as a fixative. This research provided valuable insights into LeWitt’s techniques. The acquired knowledge on the paint technique is highly relevant in supporting conservators in restoration and consolidating the many wall drawings produced exploiting the same technique all over the world.

We developed a method to isolate and quantify various classes of both non-polymeric contaminants and polymers from mussel flour using microwave-assisted extraction/digestion and analytical pyrolysis-GC-MS.