Grapevine breeding has successfully developed mildew-resistant varieties, yet their susceptibility to arthropod pests remains largely unexplored. This review synthesizes current knowledge of arthropod pest interactions with mildew-resistant grapevines and compares them with those of conventional and parental varieties. Only a few studies have reported detailed information on arthropod pest susceptibility, covering 23 resistant varieties tested against seven species/groups, including Daktulosphaira vitifoliae, Lobesia botrana, Drosophila suzukii and eriophyid mites. About half of the available studies focused on berry pests—particularly the invasive D. suzukii—while leaf and root pests received little attention. In several cases, resistant varieties exhibited susceptibility levels comparable to those of their parental varieties, although the limited number of studies makes it difficult to draw clear conclusions. Overall, major knowledge gaps remain, highlighting the need for breeding programs that integrate mildew resistance with improved assessment of arthropod pest susceptibility, without compromising agronomic performance and wine quality.

Flavescence dorée (FD) is a yellows disease that causes serious damage in European vineyards. The phytoplasma associated with FD is transmitted mainly by the leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus. Monitoring S. titanus populations is essential for defining the optimal timing of insecticide applications and evaluating the efficacy of control strategies. In the territory of the Consortium Conegliano Valdobbiadene Prosecco Superiore DOCG (northeastern Italy), where severe FD outbreaks were recorded since 2019, S. titanus populations were monitored from 2021 to 2024. During the same years, the spatial and temporal distribution of S. titanus populations was analyzed in four fragmented and critical areas. In 2022, the appearance of first instar nymphs was earlier than in other years, due to higher spring temperatures. Adult population densities have decreased since 2022, due to the effectiveness of pyrethroids used against nymphs. Nymph population densities significantly declined from 2023 onwards. In the four fragmented areas, significant patches and gaps of nymph and adult populations were recorded, with significant aggregations detected in 10 out of 16 analyzed periods in Area 1 and in 8 out of 16 in Area 3. In 2021 and 2022, when chemical control of S. titanus was not really effective, significant associations between nymph and adult spatial distributions were observed in three out of four areas. The distribution of nymphs in early spring, before insecticide application, was significantly associated with that of adults in the late summer of the previous year in three areas in 2022, two areas in 2023 and one area in 2024. In Area 1, nymph and adult patches persisted for two consecutive growing seasons, resulting no longer present only after the application of effective chemical control strategies in all vineyards of this area. For this reason, an area-wide approach to FD management is crucial, as a few infested vineyards can nullify the efforts made in well-managed vineyards.

Aproceros leucopoda (Hymenoptera: Argidae) is an East-Asian pest of Ulmus spp. that has spread across Europe since the 2000s and, more recently, to North America, causing repeated defoliation of host plants. Laboratory studies have suggested four or five generations per year in Hungary; however, in the field, their number ranges from one to six. In 2012 and 2013, the bionomics of this invasive pest were studied in north-eastern Italy through weekly samplings from April to October, with data related to accumulated degree days (DDs). Although adult captures exhibited five peaks in both years, only in 2012 were eggs of the fifth and last generation of the season. Their apparent absence in 2013 might be due to elm water stress or temperatures much higher than optimal (30 vs. 19.5 °C). From 2013 to today, a progressive decline in A. leucopoda populations has been recorded. The possible reasons for the gradual decline in the sawfly population recorded in the subsequent years are discussed. Several natural enemies were observed. This study can contribute to a better understanding of A. leucopoda population dynamics in newly colonised areas, including the risk to wood production in mixed deciduous plantations if defoliation occurs over many consecutive years.

In Europe, due to reduced availability and efficacy of active ingredients, strategies against grapevine pests based on alternative tools to synthetic pesticides need to be developed. So far, attention has been mainly focused on biological control (arthropod natural enemies and entomopathogens) and mating disruption, but other means can also help keep pests below economic injury levels. This paper aims to review information on the direct effects of farmers’ choices on grapevine pest populations, ranging from vineyard design (e.g., growing habitat, grapevine cultivar, and training system) to annual agronomic practices (e.g., fertilization, irrigation, and pruning), and specific cultural and physical methods. Information was based on the CABI Digital Library, websites and books on grapevine pests. The data presentation is based on control strategies rather than pests, as it was considered more important to focus on the mode of action of different practices and to know which pests they affect simultaneously. The widespread availability of insecticides has long led to the neglect of the potential of cultural practices, which can effectively integrate other pest control tools.

'Candidatus Phytoplasma (Ca. P.) solani' is associated with Bois noir (BN) of grapevine and stolbur of solanaceous plants and is primarily transmitted by Hyalesthes obsoletus Signoret. Four tuf-a and five tuf-b1 'Ca. P. solani' strains were transmitted to tomato plants (cv. Micro-Tom) to set the basis for studying molecular interactions between different strains of the pathogen and host plants. The strains were acquired by using bait-plants and by capturing H. obsoletus adults on bindweed and stinging nettle in vineyards of Friuli Venezia Giulia (northeastern Italy) with a high prevalence of BN. Captured insects were forced to feed on healthy tomato plants to induce infection. All strains obtained from symptomatic plants and confirmed by real-time PCR were maintained on tomato through grafting. Successively, the strains were characterised by macroscopic and microscopic symptoms induced in the host, Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) based on tuf, secY, stamp, and vmp1 genes, in-planta spread and multiplication patterns. Molecular typing distinguished the strains into five lineages comprised in three clusters: one including strains of tuf-a genotype and two including strains of tuf-b1 genotype. Quite different symptoms were induced on tomatoes by strains belonging to the two tuf genotypes; infection by tuf-a strains resulted in plant decline around 95-100 days after grafting and absence of cauliflower-like inflorescence with symptoms of phyllody and virescence, which were usually associated with tuf-b1 strains. The different symptoms, the outcome of disease, and the ultrastructural observation performed on sieve elements suggested a higher virulence of tuf-a strains in tomato. Overall, our results propose that genomic variability of 'Ca. P. solani' strains should be extensively explored to determine possible associations with type of symptoms and strain virulence.

The alien leaf miner Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) is damaging horse chestnuts in European countries. Since native natural enemies cannot control the moth, integrated control strategies must be implemented. In north-eastern Italy, from 1997 to 2020, sampling was performed on 55 sites to record the presence of and estimate the leaf damage caused by C. ohridella and the fungus Guignardia aesculi. The level of leaf removal from the ground in autumn was estimated, and information on altitude (199–1294 m a.s.l.), average annual temperature (4.4–11.9 °C) and rainfall (954–1394 mm), and the occurrence of trunk injection with abamectin was collected. Damage caused by the leaf miner and the fungus declined with decreasing temperatures, with negligible damage at sites with average annual temperatures below 7 °C (above 1000 m a.s.l. in the study area). Since, in the study sites, complete leaf removal provided comparable efficacy to trunk injections with abamectin, we suggest adopting this environmentally friendly practice to maintain C. ohridella below damaging levels. Interspecific competition occurred between C. ohridella and G. aesculi because leaf damage from one competitor decreased as damage from the other increased.

Flavescence dor & eacute;e is a quarantine disease belonging to Grapevine Yellows and affecting European vineyards. It is associated with a phytoplasma primarily transmitted by Scaphoideus titanus Ball (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) but possibly involving other vectors like Orientus ishidae (Matsumura) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). Flavescence dor & eacute;e-phytoplasma can be transmitted by vectors developed in vineyards and/or by vectors colonizing vineyards from outside (eg neglected vineyards, American vines growing in hedgerows or woody vegetation as well as broad-leaf species occurring at vineyard margins). The role of American vines (derived from Vitis spp. and commonly used as rootstocks) as a source of infective S. titanus is known. In contrast, the risk from broad-leaf trees hosting both O. ishidae and Flavescence dor & eacute;e phytoplasma remains debated. The potential contribution of woody vegetation as a source of S. titanus and O. ishidae was studied in the 2021 and 2022 growing seasons in a vine-growing area of north-eastern Italy involved in serious Flavescence dor & eacute;e outbreaks. Four vineyards adjacent to woody vegetation were examined. Results showed that the spatial distribution of S. titanus was more influenced by neighboring vineyards with high vector populations than by adjacent woody vegetation. In many cases, O. ishidae specimens were common along the borders of vineyards adjacent to woody vegetation. The spatial distributions of S. titanus nymphs and adults were related in the same growing season, and this pattern was confirmed considering adults in 2021 and nymphs in 2022. Additionally, the spatial distribution of Grapevine Yellows-symptomatic vines in 2022 was related to the presence of S. titanus but not to that of O. ishidae. Therefore, in the vine-growing area studied, Flavescence dor & eacute;e outbreaks did not appear to be influenced by the surrounding vegetation or the colonization of O. ishidae.

Grapevine yellows bois noir (BN) and the grapevine trunk disease esca complex (EC) cause serious yield losses in European vineyards and are often widespread in the same vineyard. In a Chardonnay vineyard in north-eastern Italy, evolution of the two diseases from 2007 to 2020 was compared and their possible interaction was investigated. Evolution of symptomatic grapevines over the 16 years was very different between the two diseases, with a substantial linear increase for BN and an exponential increase for EC. The BN increase from one year to another was associated with the abundance of Hyalesthes obsoletus, , the BN-phytoplasma vector, whereas the exponential increase in EC was likely due to the amount of inoculum and the increased size of pruning cuts over time. The courses of the two diseases were also very different, with a much greater occurrence of dead grapevines from EC than from BN. Some grapevines showed symptoms of both diseases, but the probability was less that a grapevine symptomatic for BN or EC showed symptoms of the other disease. Examinations of the spatial distribution of the two diseases showed dissociation between them. Data indicated that mechanisms of induced defense were involved in the lower probability that a grapevine affected by one showed symptoms of the other.

Bois noir (BN) is a grapevine yellows disease associated with ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma (Ca. P.) solani’ that is transmitted to grapevines by the planthopper Hyalesthes obsoletus Signoret which uses herbaceous plants such as Urtica dioica as a pathogen reservoir. Urtica dioica is often widespread along ditches bordering vineyards, and a gradient in decreasing BN symptomatic grapevines is observed from the vineyard edges facing these ditches. In two vineyards in north-eastern Italy, over eight or seven years, the ditch bordering one edge of each vineyard was divided into two sections; in one of these, U. dioica was chemically weeded in April, while the other one remained untreated. The impact of chemical weeding on the spatial distribution of both H. obsoletus captures and newly BN symptomatic grapevines was assessed. The reduction in H. obsoletus captures in the vineyard sector facing the section of the ditch subjected to weeding corresponded to a decrease in newly symptomatic grapevines. These findings demonstrated that nettle removal from areas surrounding vineyards can effectively control BN.

Inter-row management in vineyards can influence the abundance of grapevine pests and their natural enemies. In 2013–2015, in a vineyard in northeastern Italy, the influence of two vineyard inter-row management strategies (i.e., alternate mowing, AM, and periodical tillage, PT) on the population dynamics of grapevine leafhoppers Hebata vitis and Zygina rhamni and their natural enemies, the mymarid Anagrus atomus and spiders (Araneae), and other hymenopteran parasitoids, were studied with different survey approaches. The infestations of both leafhoppers were lower in AM than PT due to the reduced leafhopper oviposition and higher nymph mortality in AM. This occurred although leafhopper egg parasitization by A. atomus was greater in PT than AM according to a density-dependent relationship with the leafhopper egg amount. Hymenopteran parasitoids other than A. atomus were the most abundant in AM, probably due to the higher availability of nectar and pollen than in PM. The significantly higher population densities of hunting spiders in AM than PT can be associated with the higher predation of leafhopper nymphs. Therefore, the study demonstrated that the alternate mowing of vineyard inter-rows enhances the abundance of natural enemies, such as spiders and hymenopteran parasitoids, and can contribute to grapevine leafhopper pest control.

Scaphoideus titanus is the main vector of phytoplasmas associated with Flavescence dorée (FD), one of the most serious threats to viticulture in many European countries. To minimize the spread of this disease, mandatory control measures against S. titanus were decided in Europe. In the 1990s, the repeated application of insecticides (mainly organophosphates) proved to be an effective measure to control the vector and the related disease in north-eastern Italy. These insecticides and most of the neonicotinoids were recently banned from European viticulture. Serious FD issues detected in the recent years in northern Italy could be related to the use of less effective insecticides. Trials aimed at evaluating the efficacy of the most used conventional and organic insecticides in the control of S. titanus have been performed in semi-field and field conditions to test this hypothesis. In efficacy trials, carried out in four vineyards, etofenprox and deltamethrin proved to be the best conventional insecticides, while pyrethrins were the most impactful among organic insecticides. Insecticide residual activity was evaluated in semi-field and field conditions. Acrinathrin showed the most significant residual effects in both conditions. In semi-field trials, most of the pyrethroids were associated with good results in terms of residual activity. However, these effects declined in field conditions, probably due to high temperatures. Organic insecticides showed poor results in terms of residual efficacy. Implications of these results in the context of Integrated Pest Management in conventional and organic viticulture are discussed.

Yellow sticky traps are used to monitor sap-sucking insects in their roles as both pests and vectors across a broad range of crops including vineyards. They are also used to understand different aspects of insect biology, and for this purpose, a number of studies have been conducted to determine the daily flight activity of leafhoppers and thrips. In a vineyard in north-eastern Italy, the daily flight activities of leafhoppers [e.g. Empoasca vitis (Gothe), Zygina rhamni Ferrari, Scaphoideus titanus Ball], as well as the vine thrips Drepanothrips reuteri Uzel, were studied with yellow sticky traps during different monitoring days of the growing season. The traps were placed in both shady and sunny positions with respect to the grapevine foliage, and in inter-rows. They were routinely replaced every hour from the start of dawn to the end of dusk, while during the hours of darkness there was no replacement, except on one monitoring day. E. vitis, S. titanus and D. reuteri were mainly captured in sunny positions, while Z. rhamni was captured in shady positions. E. vitis exhibits bimodal daily flight activity with two peaks respectively at the dawn-sunrise and sunset-dusk. Z. rhamni prefers to fly around sunrise, when daily temperatures are lower, and S. titanus flies continuously from sunset to sunrise. The vine thrips flies only during sunshine hours. The daily hours with higher flight activity are mostly associated with changes in light intensity. The moderate light intensity that occurs immediately after sunrise and just before sunset inhibits the flight activity of leafhoppers outside the canopy but not inside. Knowing the daily flying activity and behaviour of leafhoppers and thrips can have important implications for establishing the optimal sampling time because in the hours of the highest flying activity counting adults can be more difficult.

In vineyards, kaolin application and bunch-zone leaf removal (LR) were effective in the control of leafhoppers and Lobesia botrana, but their side effects on generalist predators are still poorly understood. In north-eastern Italian vineyards, the impact of kaolin and LR on species and functional diversity of spiders, as well as the abundance of spiders and generalist predatory insects, was assessed in one vineyard for two consecutive years and in two vineyards for one year. The ecological indices of the spider community were never influenced by kaolin and only in one case were they influenced by LR. At the spider family level, kaolin reduced the abundance of Araneidae, Oxypidae and Salticidae, but only in single cases. In single cases, kaolin reduced the amount of Orius sp. anthocorids and increased that of Scymninae coccinellids, whereas LR increased the amount of Aeolothrips sp. The moderate use of kaolin and the application of LR had negligible and inconsistent impacts on generalist predatory arthropods in vineyards and were therefore, compatible with IPM strategies.

Grapevine water stress can exert profound effects on the abundance of the green leafhopper Empoasca vitis (Gothe) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in vineyards. Three experiments were carried out using potted grapevines in controlled conditions to investigate the mechanisms involved in this phenomenon. Grapevines were subjected to different levels of water stress, monitored by a pressure chamber, and E. vitis adults were confined on them prior or after the induction of water stress. At the end of each experiment, the number of leafhopper eggs laid in grapevine leaves and that of hatched eggs were counted. Empoasca vitis females preferred to oviposit into leaf veins and petioles, but tendrils and internodes (with a diameter of less than 2 mm) were also used. Moderate water stress levels (stem potential values from -0.9 to -1.0 MPa) reduced the reproductive potential of E. vitis and egg survival (hatching rate of 60%). High stress levels (values from -1.6 to 1.7 MPa) had a marked negative effect on egg laying and egg hatching (hatching rate of 33%), and hence reduced the subsequent abundance of nymphs and adults. Severe stress levels (values from -1.6 to 1.7 MPa) dramatically reduced the survival of eggs (hatching rate of 5%), and subsequently the size of progeny. The positive effect of a moderate water stress on E. vitis control was discussed in relation to yield and grape quality.

The vineyard inter-row management affects grapevine vegetative and bunch health status, as well as yield and grape quality parameters. Several studies assessed that cover-cropped inter-row in place of soil tillage often reduced plant vigour and yield but positively contributed to vineyard ecosystem services and, to a lower extent, to grape quality. In 2013 and 2014, two inter-row management strategies, i.e. soil tillage and mowing of spontaneous cover crops, were compared in an organic vineyard in north-eastern Italy and cultivated with 'Sauvignon Blanc' (Vitis vinifera L.), clones R3 and 297. In particular, the effects of tillage and mowing treatments on grapevine vegetative and bunch health status, yield and grape quality were evaluated. The vegetative parameters were lower in the mowing treatment than in the tillage one and in clone R3 compared to 297. The incidence of Botrytis cinerea was higher in the tillage treatment than in the mowing one and in clone 297 compared to R3. A significant reduction of the yield and bunch weight was ascertained in the mowing treatment, and these parameters were higher for clone 297 compared to clone R3. Titratable acidity was significantly higher in the tillage treatment than in the mowing one and in clone 297 compared to R3. Moreover, hue of berry skin was qualitatively better in the tillage treatment than in the mowing one. In the pedo-climatic conditions of Friuli of the vineyard inter-row with spontaneous cover crops proved to be effective to manage grapevine vigour, rematuration.

Coloured sticky card traps are widely used for sampling and control of sap-sucking insect pests. In European vineyards they are used for monitoring leafhoppers [i.e., Empoasca vitis (Gothe), Zygina rhamni Ferrari, Scaphoideus titanus Ball], the vine thrips Drepanothrips reuteri Uzel and the leafhopper egg parasitoid Anagrus atomus (L.). A study was conducted to establish the trap factors that influence captures of these insects (i.e., size, inclination, exposure days, colour, position within canopy and side orientation). The total captures of grapevine leafhoppers increased as trap size increased, without a significant decline in captures relative to unit area. All leafhopper species were more attracted by vertical traps than horizontal traps, and in the latter case, E. vitis and Z. rhamni were mainly captured on the underside of the trap, while S. titanus on the upper side. For all leafhoppers and D. reuteri, efficiency decreased with the number of days the traps remained in the field. Yellow was a colour preferred by all insects, with Z. rhamni showing a strong preference for lighter yellows. S. titanus was also captured by red traps and A. atomus by colourless ones. Z. rhamni and S. titanus showed a preference for traps placed in shady positions, whereas E. vitis and D. reuteri preferred traps in sunny positions. E. vitis and D. reuteri preferred trap sides exposed to sunlight in the late afternoon and early morning, respectively. Our results were compared with the literature and discussed in relation to the feeding preference and behaviour of the different species.

Anagrus atomus (L.) is an egg parasitoid involved in the biological control of Empoasca vitis (Göthe) in vineyards. Sex pheromones play a crucial role in mate finding for several parasitoid species and could be used for monitoring under field conditions. We carried out laboratory and field studies aimed at assessing the existence and identity of a possible A. atomus sex pheromone. We found that males were significantly attracted by virgin females independent of age. Males were not attracted to individuals of the same sex, but they were attracted by a crude extract from an unmated female and its polar fraction. Eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol) was identified as the attractive substance and proved to be attractive not only in the olfactometer but also in another laboratory bioassay and under field conditions. Attraction of males, but not females, confirms that this is not an aggregation pheromone. This is the first sex-pheromone component identified in Mymaridae, however more compounds could be involved in the mating behaviour of A. atomus . The utility of a sex pheromone in A. atomus is discussed in the context of fitness returns.

The economic threshold for the second generation of grape moths based on attack and damage levels at harvest is not useful, since treatment must be given in July. The relationship between catches on pheromone traps and attacks do not always allow a decision on whether to treat or not. The "anticipated" economic threshold based on egg-laying on grapes (1 – 10% bunches with visible eggs) presents some sampling difficulties. The first larval holes on the grapes are easier to observe than eggs. A sampling method based on the first larval holes (10 – 15 days after the emergence peak of male moths) is reported. The new economic threshold is based on the analysis of the evolution of attacks and damages. In particular, it has been observed that: The groups of rotten grapes, visible on mature bunches, are the consequence of perforations on unripe grapes, made by second generation larvae. A good relationship has been found between early larval attacks (10 – 15 days after the emergence peak of male moths) and final attacks. Penetrating insecticides allow a successful treatment even 10 – 15 days after the emergence peak of male moths.

To reduce the impact of synthetic insecticides on human health and the environment, eco-friendly alternatives must be investigated. Knowledge of the side effects on pests and natural enemies of natural products applied to vineyards is very useful. Sulfur dust, which is used in vineyards to control powdery mildew, is investigated in laboratory and field bioassays for its effects on Lobesia botrana egg laying, egg hatching, and larval settlement. In field trials, the efficacy of sulfur dust against the two L. botrana carpophagous generations is compared with that of Bacillus thuringiensis and kaolin, and its side effects on the phytoseiid mite Kampimodromus aberrans are evaluated. In the bioassays, sulfur dust reduced female survival by 43%, egg laying by around 80%, egg hatching by 10%, and larval settlement by 55%. In field trials, sulfur dust caused a significant decrease in the number of L. botrana larval nests of both generations, even though the efficacy was lower than that of B. thuringiensis. No negative effects of sulfur dust on the predatory mite population density was observed. On the basis of these results, in the context of Integrated Pest Management strategies in vineyards, the activity of sulfur dust against L. botrana could be exploited by timing its application to the beginning of egg laying.

Hyalesthes obsoletus is the vector of “Candidatus Phytoplasma (Ca. P.) solani,” the causal agent of grapevine yellows Bois noir (BN). The relationships among the planthopper, its main herbaceous hosts as phytoplasma reservoirs (Convolvolus arvensis and Urtica dioica) and BN spreading were studied in northern Italy. In two areas the relationship between host plants and the phenology and survival of planthopper adults was investigated in potted plants and in field conditions. Moreover, H. obsoletus ecology, newly symptomatic grapevine occurrence and “Ca. P. solani” tuf-types’ presence were studied in two vineyards (2014–2019). An earlier occurrence of H. obsoletus adults on C. arvensis than U. dioica and better adult survival of the originating host were observed. When U. dioica was prevalent, the vector occurred almost exclusively along the ditch outside the vineyard. Hyalesthes obsoletus amount varied widely from year to year and nymphal mortality due to late frosts was supposed. In one vineyard, the amount of newly symptomatic grapevines was significantly correlated with vector abundance in the previous year. The “Ca. P. solani” tuf-type was influenced by vector population levels on the two hosts. Since the abundance of H. obsoletus populations on the two hosts influences BN epidemiology and dynamics and the “Ca. P. solani” tuf-type, this must be considered in BN control strategies.