Objectives Antimicrobial resistance is a major global health threat, with antimicrobial use recognized as a key driver. The post-weaning period is one of the most antimicrobial-intensive phases in pig production. This study assessed the impact on production costs of feed-based and immunomodulatory interventions designed to reduce antimicrobial use in European pig production. Materials and methods Within the EU-funded AVANT project, we evaluated feed-based strategies (alfalfa diets and high-fibre/low-protein 'secure' feed) and immunomodulatory interventions (faecal filtrate transplantation and vaccination against Shiga-producing Escherichia coli). Using data from field trials and observational studies conducted in Denmark, the Netherlands and France, we estimated the additional production costs per kilogram of pigmeat associated with each intervention. Cost and production parameters were derived from InterPIG and EU datasets (2019-2023) and adjusted under alternative mortality scenarios (6%-24%). Results Feed-based interventions for piglets accounted for a small share of total feed costs and increased production costs by <0.2% at EU level. Vaccination against Shiga-producing E. coli increased production costs by <1%. By contrast, faecal filtrate transplantation resulted in substantially higher costs under trial conditions, increasing production costs by 9%-11% depending on mortality assumptions. None of the interventions negatively affected pig performance metrics in the trials. Conclusions Feed-based strategies and vaccination represent accessible and affordable options to reduce antimicrobial use in pig production in Europe. More innovative approaches such as faecal filtrate transplantation remain costly under experimental conditions but may become economically viable through regulatory approval, market development and economies of scale.

Abstract Managing post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD) in piglets is difficult due to limits on antibiotics and zinc. Chitosan is emerging as a potential feed additive. We analysed a chito-oligosaccharide hydrochloride (COS-HCl), a low molecular weight (LMW) chitosan, and a medium molecular weight (MMW) chitosan, and assessed their effects on growth, faecal consistency, microbiota, and potential interference with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). The three chitosans were characterised using ¹H-NMR, SEC-RI-MS, and SEC-RI-MALLS. COS-HCl had an Mw of 0.824 kDa; LMW and MMW showed Mw ranges of 14.4 kDa (0.3-30 kDa) and 116 kDa (15-600 kDa). Degrees of acetylation were 9.5%, 6.5%, and 15%. Two 42-day field studies evaluated average daily gain (ADG), faecal consistency, and microbiota. In the first trial, COS-HCl at 0.025–0.1% did not significantly affect ADG (-33 to - 12 g/d). In the second, LMW and MMW at 0.01% did not significantly change ADG (-7 and +3 g/d). Faecal consistency, ETEC shedding, and microbiota composition were similar to controls. An enzymatic HPLC-MS method enabled quantification of MMW chitosan in premix. Our results highlight the importance of advanced chitosan characterisation for precision nutrition and suggest that a threshold dosemay be needed to benefit growth and gut health in PWD management. Graphical Abstract

Offspring from sows fed Zn, Cu and Mn in the metal methionine hydroxy analogue chelate (MHAC) form vs. sulfate form have been shown to have greater loin eye area at harvest. Data is lacking compared with other mineral sources. Assess the impact of maternal feeding of MHAC or glycinate (Gly) minerals on offspring serum mineral concentration, loin depth and fat depth. From 6 weeks pre-breeding through first gestation, diets were supplemented with 80 mg/kg Zn, 10 mg/kg Cu and 20 mg/kg Mn. From first through third lactation, Zn, Cu and Mn were provided at 50 mg/kg Zn, 10 mg/kg Cu and 20 mg/kg Mn. During parity 3, serum from 1 piglet/litter at 4-d, weaning and 14-d post-weaning was obtained from 20 litters/treatment. At each parity, muscle and backfat depth was determined for approximately 1,000 pigs/treatment. There was no treatment (P > 0.15) nor treatment × time interaction (P > 0.22) for serum mineral concentration. Serum Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn were highest at weaning (P < 0.001). Cu and Zn concentrations were 34% and 60% lower respectively at 14-d post-weaning than at 4-d of age. Parity 2 and 3 MHAC offspring had 0.5 mm (P < 0.01) and 1.0 mm (P < 0.001) more muscle depth at 122 kg. Backfat was lower in parity 1 (-0.2 mm; P < 0.01) and parity 3 (-0.4 mm; P < 0.001) MHAC offspring. Offspring serum mineral concentration was highest at 4-d of age. Maternal trace mineral source appears to provide an opportunity to impact offspring loin and fat depth at harvest.

This study investigated the effects of a phytogenic feed additive (PFA) containing a blend of herbs, plant extracts and essential oils from the Lamiaceae, Schisandraceae, Zingiberaceae and Fabaceae families on the fecal score, intestinal histomorphology and fecal excretion of F4-fimbriated enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (F4-ETEC) in post-weaning piglets. Thirty 31-day-old weaned piglets were randomly allocated to three treatment groups. The positive control (PC) group received colistin via drinking water from d 8 to 14 post-weaning and the same basal diet as the negative control (NC) group; the treatment group received the basal diet with PFA supplementation (1 g/kg of feed). The experiment lasted 21 days. At day 9 post-weaning, all piglets were orally administered 3.0 × 1010 CFU/piglet of the F4-ETEC strain. The PC piglets had higher fecal consistency than the NC and PFA piglets. PFA supplementation resulted in a lower percentage of piglets excreting F4-ETEC in the feces on days 4–7 post-challenge than in the NC group (p < 0.05) but a higher percentage versus the PC group on day 3–7 post-challenge (p < 0.05). The number of goblet cells (GCs) in the jejunum of the PFA piglets was higher than the NC and PC piglets (p < 0.01). The GC density in the jejunum of the PFA piglets was larger than in the PC piglets (p < 0.05) and similar to the NC piglets (p > 0.10). Mucus thickness in the jejunum of the PFA piglets was similar to the NC piglets and PC piglets (p > 0.10). In conclusion, PFA supplementation to the F4-ETEC-challenged piglets reduced the prevalence of fecal E. coli excretion and improved jejunal histomorphology.

An 18-d experiment tested the hypothesis that using calcium formate (Ca-formate) instead of limestone in piglet diets, lowers the dietary buffering capacity, reduces stomach pH, and improves phytase efficiency. At weaning (29.8 ± 1.10 d), 60 boars (body weight 8.8 ± 0.31 kg) housed in metabolism crates were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 10 experimental diets and 2 weaning rounds. Diets were formulated following a 5 × 2 factorial design with 5 dietary treatments (Trt) and 2 main Ca sources (limestone or Ca-formate). The 5 Trt included a positive control diet [PC; 0.76% Ca, 0.34% standardized total tract digestible (STTD) P] and 4 negative control diets (NC; 0.56% Ca, 0.21% STTD P) supplemented with phytase at 0, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 FYT/kg. At day 10, piglets were individually housed to allow fecal and urine sample collection. On days 0, 7, and 18, blood samples were collected. At day 18, samples of gastrointestinal content and the metacarpus were collected, and apparent jejunal, ileal, and total tract digestibility (AJD, AID, and ATTD) of Ca and P was calculated. Digestibility and blood data were analyzed as a 2-way and 3-way interaction, respectively. Phytase dose-response regressions for ATTD Ca and P concentrations were performed per Ca source. Regardless of Trt, Ca source did not affect stomach pH, but Ca-formate diets had greater AID and ATTD of Ca (+5.7% and 3.6%; P < 0.01) and lower AID and ATTD of P (-3.2% and 2.4%; P < 0.01) than limestone diets. Increasing phytase levels increased the ATTD and AID of Ca and P (P < 0.01). An interaction between Trt and Ca source was observed for AJD of P (P < 0.01). There was no effect of Ca source, except at 750 FYT, where the Ca-formate diet had lower AJD of P than the limestone diet. Based on the dose-response analyses, to reach a dietary ATTD P of 3.84 g/kg, 1,232 and 1,944 FYT are needed in the limestone and Ca-formate diets, respectively. Compared with the NC, increasing levels of phytase and the PC diet increased serum P (mg/L) and P retention (%), phytase inclusion increased plasma inositol (µmol), but only the PC diet increased bone ash (g/kg; Trt main effect; P < 0.001). In conclusion, replacing limestone with Ca-formate does not lower stomach pH, increases Ca but reduces P digestibility, and decreases phytase efficiency, likely due to greater Ca solubility, which induces the formation of insoluble Ca-P-phytate complexes. This highlights the importance of considering a digestible Ca system in piglet diets.

A study with Topigs TN70 gilts was conducted to compare organic sources of Zn, Cu, and Mn when provided in the methionine hydroxy analogue bis-chelated (MHAC) or glycinate (GLYC) form over 3 parities (P). From 7 weeks pre-breeding through the first gestation (pen housing), diets were supplemented with 80 mg/kg of Zn, 10 mg/kg of Cu, and 20 mg/kg of Mn in the respective forms. From the first through third lactation, the treatments provided 50 mg/kg of Zn, 10 mg/kg of Cu, and 20 mg/kg of Mn. GLYC diets were supplemented with DL-methionine to have equivalent levels of methionine compared to the MHAC treatment (using 100% Methionine equivalence from 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)butanoic acid; HMTBa provided by the MHAC). Gestation and lactation feed intake were managed to result in similar intake between treatments. Cross-fostering occurred within treatment within 24-h of birth. Litter size was standardized to 14.7 pigs/litter in P1 and P2 and 15.0 pigs/litter in P3. Locomotion score was evaluated at d-108 and weaning in P1, P2, and P3 using a 5 pt scoring system (0 = non-lame to 4 = severely lame). At insemination, 175 gilts per treatment were selected to remain in the study. Data was analyzed by ANOVA using GenStat® for Windows (21st edition). During the pre-breeding period, there was no effect (P >0.10) of mineral source on initial weight (143.5 kg), insemination weight (163.5 kg), backfat (BF) at insemination (14.1 mm), loin depth (LD) at insemination (63.5 mm). MHAC females gained 4.4 (P< 0.01), 4.6 (P< 0.05), and 4.8 kg (P< 0.001) more gestation weight in P1 through P3. MHAC sows in each parity had higher BF gain (P< 0.05; P2 and P3). MHAC P1 females had less LD loss (P< 0.05) and greater LD gain in P3 (P< 0.001). Total born and piglet birth weights were not different between mineral sources (P >0.10), indicating that the greater sow weight gain was a result of greater sow, not conceptus, gain. MHAC females lost 3 kg (P1; P< 0.10), 3.5 kg (P2; P< 0.05), and 3.6 kg (P3; P< 0.05) more weight in lactation. MHAC sows had numerically greater BF and LD loss in each parity with BF response significant in P2 (P< 0.01) and LD significant in P1 and P3 (P< 0.05). Both litter and piglet weaning weights were higher in P1 and P2 (P< 0.11) as well as P3 (P< 0.01) in the MHAC sows. Even with little lameness, locomotion score was lower for P1 females at both d-108 of gestation and at weaning. Results indicate differences exist between organic trace mineral sources on efficiency of maternal nutrient utilization and lameness in P1 females during gestation and subsequent promotion of milk production during 3 parities.

This study evaluated the effect of a yeast β-glucan on the performance, gut health, liver function, and bacterial translocation of broiler chickens fed a diet contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins. One-day-old male Ross broilers (n = 234) were divided into three treatments with six replicates each, and a cage containing 13 birds was the experimental unit. The animals were fed a maize–soybean-based control diet or maize–soybean diets naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins, where deoxynivalenol (DON) was the major mycotoxin (~3 mg/kg), followed by zearalenone (ZEN) (~0.5 mg/kg). The Fusarium-contaminated diet was either supplemented or not with a yeast β-glucan over 28 days. Dietary exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins did not affect production performance. On the other hand, Fusarium mycotoxin exposure significantly decreased jejunum villus height (VH) and crypt depth (CD) on d13, and this effect was counteracted by the yeast β-glucan. On d28, the jejunum VH:CD ratio was significantly higher in the broiler chickens that were fed the Fusarium-contaminated diet with yeast β-glucan (125 mg/kg diet) added to it. The ileal villus area was significantly decreased in the broiler chickens fed Fusarium-contaminated diet, regardless of the supplementation with yeast β-glucan. Dietary contamination caused intestinal oxidative stress and inflammation, probably affecting nutrient absorption on d28, and resulted in a significant increase in the translocation of Escherichia coli to the liver. Dietary supplementation with yeast β-glucan minimized these negative effects.

The effects of stocking density (SD) and feeder access (FA) on the performance and damaging behaviour of weaned piglets are not well understood. Three experiments (Ts) were conducted. T1 compared low SD (LSD) (0.55 m2/piglet) and moderate SD (MSD) (0.37 m2/piglet), T2 compared low FA (LFA1) (1.33 piglets/feeder; partially slatted floor) and high FA (HFA1) (0.66 piglets/feeder; fully slatted floor), and T3 compared LFA2 (2.33 piglets/feeder) and HFA2 (1.00 piglets/feeder). T1 included 24 replicates, while T2 and T3 each had 12 replicates. In total, 576 piglets were weighed at days (d) 0, 14, and 35 post-weaning (PW). Faecal consistency (FC) was recorded multiple times per week. Tail and ear injuries were scored at d35 PW. Piglets housed under LSD grew faster throughout the experiment (p < 0.05) and had a lower feed conversion ratio (FCR) between d0 and 14 PW (p = 0.02) than those in MSD. Tail injuries were not significantly affected (p = 0.14). HFA1 piglets had higher FC between d0 and 14 PW (p = 0.01) and overall (p = 0.02), but fewer intact tails at d35 PW (p = 0.01) compared with LFA1. In T3, LFA2 piglets had a lower average daily gain (p = 0.03), higher FCR between d14 and 35 PW (p = 0.04), and fewer intact tails (p < 0.01) than HFA2 piglets. These results suggest that both FA and SD can influence piglet performance, FC, and damaging behaviour.

The aims of this study were (i) to determine the effect of an algoclay-based decontaminant on the oral availability of three mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol; DON, ochratoxin A; OTA, and aflatoxin B1; AFB1) using an oral bolus model and (ii) to determine the effect of this decontaminant on the performance, intestinal morphology, liver oxidative stress, and metabolism, in broiler chickens fed a diet naturally contaminated with DON. In experiment 1, sixteen 27-day-old male chickens (approximately 1.6 kg body weight; BW) were fasted for 12 h and then given a bolus containing either the mycotoxins (0.5 mg DON/kg BW, 0.25 mg OTA/kg BW, and 2.0 mg AFB1/kg BW) alone (n = 8) or combined with the decontaminant (2.5 g decontaminant/kg feed; circa 240 mg/kg BW) (n = 8). Blood samples were taken between 0 h (before bolus administration) and 24 h post-administration for DON-3-sulphate, OTA, and AFB1 quantification in plasma. The algoclay decontaminant decreased the relative oral bioavailability of DON (39.9%), OTA (44.3%), and AFB1 (64.1%). In experiment 2, one-day-old male Ross broilers (n = 600) were divided into three treatments with ten replicates. Each replicate was a pen with 20 birds. The broiler chickens were fed a control diet with negligible levels of DON (0.19–0.25 mg/kg) or diets naturally contaminated with moderate levels of DON (2.60–2.91 mg/kg), either supplemented or not with an algoclay-based decontaminant (2 g/kg diet). Jejunum villus damage was observed on day 28, followed by villus shortening on d37 in broiler chickens fed the DON-contaminated diet. This negative effect was not observed when the DON-contaminated diet was supplemented with the algoclay-based decontaminant. On d37, the mRNA expression of glutathione synthetase was significantly increased in the liver of broiler chickens fed the DON-contaminated diet. However, its expression was similar to the control when the birds were fed the DON-contaminated diet supplemented with the algoclay-based decontaminant. In conclusion, the algoclay-based decontaminant reduced the systemic exposure of broiler chickens to DON, OTA, and AFB1 in a single oral bolus model. This can be attributed to the binding of the mycotoxins in the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, dietary contamination with DON at levels between 2.69 and 2.91 mg/kg did not impair production performance but had a negative impact on broiler chicken intestinal morphology and the liver redox system. When the algoclay-based decontaminant was added to the diet, the harm caused by DON was no longer observed. This correlates with the results obtained in the toxicokinetic assay and can be attributed to a decreased absorption of DON.

Mycotoxins have the potential to increase the risk of airway or intestinal infection due to their effects on epithelial integrity and function. The bacterium Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is often carried in pigs and can cause outbreaks of invasive disease, leading to sepsis and meningitis in postweaning piglets. In this study, we tested the effect of two Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2) on the integrity of the intestinal epithelium and their interaction with S. suis. Porcine ileal organoids were exposed to DON and T-2 individually or in combination and co-cultured with or without S. suis. Both DON and T-2 were toxic for ileal organoid monolayers at a concentration of 1 µM but not S. suis, even at a higher concentration of 4 µM. To mimic sub-clinical exposures on farms, DON was tested at a concentration of 0.1 µM and T-2 at a concentration of 0.01 µM. The mycotoxins alone did not affect cell permeability, but in combination with S. suis there was an increase in epithelial permeability. Furthermore, DON and T-2 together decreased the transepithelial electrical resistance and increased bacterial translocation.

Abstract This study assessed the capacity of a novel consensus bacterial 6-phytase variant (PhyG) to maintain growth performance of weaned pigs when added to a nutrient-reduced mixed cereal diet with two levels of dietary net energy (NE) reduction applied. A total of 360 newly weaned pigs [Greater York × Norsvin Landrace; initial body weight (BW) 8.4 ± 0.78 kg] were assigned to 60 floor-pens and 5 dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design. There were 2 blocks (weaning group), 6 replicate pens per block, and 6 pigs/pen (3 male, 3 female), in total of 12 replications per treatment. Diets were based on wheat, corn, barley, and soybean meal and were offered to pigs in 2 phases in pelleted form (0–14 and 14–35 d post-weaning). Treatments comprised a nutritionally adequate positive control (PC) and 4 negative control (NC) diets supplemented with PhyG. The NC diets were reduced in digestible P, Ca, Na, and digestible amino acids vs. PC, according to the expected contribution of PhyG added at 1,000 phytase units (FTU)/kg (NC1) or 2,000 FTU/kg (NC2), respectively. Each NC1 and NC2 was formulated at two NE reduction levels, designated ‘low’ and ‘high’ (‘low’: -53 to -65 kcal/kg and ‘high’: -73 to -86 kcal/kg, vs. PC at 1,000 and 2,000 FTU/kg PhyG, respectively). Data were analyzed by ANOVA. Means separation was by Tukey’s HSD test. During both phases and overall (0–35 d), average BW, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in all PhyG-supplemented, nutrient- and NE-reduced treatments, were either not different or were improved compared with the PC. Overall ADG, ADFI, and final BW (d 35) were greater in NC2+PhyG 2,000 FTU/kg ‘low’ vs. PC (466 vs. 424 g, 9.9%, 622 vs. 567 g, 9.7%, and 24.7 vs. 23.1 kg, 6.9%, respectively; P < 0.05). Total feed costs (ingredients price, February 2023) and estimated carbon footprint (CFP; FeedPrint, WUR, The Netherland) per kilogram of BW gain (BWG) were reduced in all PhyG-supplemented, nutrient- and NE-reduced treatments vs. PC. Feed costs saving per kg BWG were greater with ‘high’ than ‘low’ NE reduction applied (-0.013 vs. -0.007 €, respectively, vs. PC) with PhyG at 1,000 FTU/kg, and it was greatest in NC2+PhyG 2,000 FTU/kg with ‘low’ NE reduction (-0.036 € vs. PC). Similarly, the CFP was reduced from 2,068 to 1,840 g CO2 eq/kg BWG (-11 %) by NC2+PhyG 2,000 FTU/kg with ‘low’ NE reduction vs. PC. In conclusion, the application of a full nutrient matrix with ‘high’ or ‘low’ NE reduction combined with supplementation of PhyG maintained growth performance of weaned pigs and reduced the total feed costs and carbon footprint per kg BW gain, lead to production and sustainability benefits.

Abstract An 18-d study evaluated the effect of increasing phytase levels in diets with limestone or Ca-formate on Ca and P digestibility, P retention, and blood inositol, Ca, and P in weaned piglets. At weaning, male piglets [n = 60; 29.8 ± 1.10 d of age; initial body weight (BW) = 8.8 ± 0.31 kg) were randomly allocated to ten diets formulated as a 2 × 5 factorial design with 2 primary Ca sources (limestone or Ca-formate) and 5 Ca/P levels. There was a positive control diet (PC; 0.76% Ca, 0.34 dP) and 4 negative control diets (NC; 0.56% Ca, 0.34% dP) supplemented with phytase at 0, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 FYT/kg. At d 10, piglets were individually housed in metabolism crates and fed 3.2 x metabolic weight. On d 14 to 18, fecal and total urine samples were collected. Apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) was calculated for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), ash, Ca, and P using TiO2 as marker. Urinary P was measured to calculate P retention. These data were analyzed as a 2-way interaction. On d 0 (baseline), 8 and 18, blood samples were collected to analyze serum Ca and P, and plasma inositol. Blood data were analyzed as a 3-way interaction. Results indicated that piglets fed Ca-formate had greater ATTD of Ca (75.0% vs. 71.4%, P < 0.01) but decreased ATTD of P (66.4% vs. 68.8%, P < 0.01), than piglets fed limestone. Phytase supplementation improved ATTD of DM, ash, OM, CP, P, and Ca compared with the NC and PC. An interaction between Ca/P levels and Ca-sources was observed for urinary P (P = 0.03), as there were no differences between Ca sources in piglets fed the NC or the 750 FYT diets, but piglets fed the PC diet and the NC+1,500 or 3,000 FYT with limestone had greater urinary P compared with Ca-formate. A 2-way interaction between Ca/P levels and d was observed for plasma inositol (P = 0.012). On d 8 and 18, there was no difference between the NC and PC;, however, phytase supplementation at 750, 1,500, and 3,000 FYT increased plasma inositol on d 8 (58.2, 80.7, and 89.5 μmol) and d 18 (70.2, 85.4, and 106.4 μmol). There was only a main effect of Ca/P levels in serum P. Compared with the NC (73.7 mg/L), the PC and the NC+750, 1,500, and 3,000 FTU/kg increased serum P (90.3, 89.1, 87.6, and 93.2 mg/L, respectively, P < 0.01). There was no effect of Ca source on blood inositol and P. No significant dietary treatment effects were observed in serum Ca. In conclusion, using Ca-formate instead of limestone increases Ca digestibility but reduces P digestibility, likely due to a greater Ca solubility of Ca-formate. This suggests that diets should be formulated based on digestible Ca instead of total Ca.

Reduction of post-weaning diarrhoea caused by ETEC is a principal objective in pig farming in terms of welfare benefits. This study determined the effects of genetic susceptibility and dietary strategies targeting inflammation and fimbriae adherence on F4-ETEC shedding and diarrhoea in weaned piglets in an experimental challenge model. A DNA marker test targeting single nucleotide polymorphism 2 (SNP2) identified piglets as heterozygous (SNP2+, susceptible) or homozygous (SNP2-, resistant) to developing F4ac-ETEC diarrhoea. A total of 50 piglets, 25 SNP2+ and 25 SNP2-, were weaned at 30 days of age and equally distributed to different treatments (n = 10): Positive control (PC): piglets fed with a negative control diet and provided with colistin via drinking water; Negative control (NC): piglets fed with a negative control diet; Tall oil fatty acids (TOFA): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.0 g TOFA/kg feed; Yeast hydrolysate (YH): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.5 g YH/kg feed derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae; and Combination (COM): piglets fed with a negative control diet + 1.0 g TOFA and 1.5 g YH/kg feed. On day 10 post-weaning, all piglets were infected with F4-ETEC by oral administration. Piglets fed with PC, TOFA, YH or COM had a lower faecal shedding of F4-ETEC than NC piglets (P < 0.001), which was also shorter in duration for PC and TOFA piglets than for NC piglets (P < 0.001). Piglets in PC, TOFA, YH and COM had a shorter diarrhoea duration versus NC when classified as SNP2+ (P = 0.02). Furthermore, PC, TOFA and YH piglets grew more than NC and COM piglets in the initial post-inoculation period (P < 0.001). In addition, the level of faecal F4-ETEC shedding and the percentage of pigs that developed F4-ETEC diarrhoea (72 vs. 32%, P < 0.01) following infection were higher, and the duration of F4-ETEC diarrhoea longer (2.6 vs. 0.6 days, P < 0.001), in SNP2+ piglets than in SNP2- piglets, and led to reduced growth performance (P = 0.03). In conclusion, piglets fed with TOFA, YH or their combination, irrespective of their SNP2 status, are more resilient to F4-ETEC infection. Moreover, SNP2+ piglets show a higher level of F4-ETEC shedding and diarrhoea prevalence than SNP2- piglets, confirming an association between SNP2 and F4ac-ETEC susceptibility.

Background Traditionally Momordica charantia (Bitter gourd) is known for its blood glucose lowering potential. This has been validated by many previous studies based on rodent models but human trials are less convincing and the physiological mechanisms underlying the bioactivity of Bitter gourd are still unclear. The present study compared the effects of whole fruit or stems-leaves from five different Bitter gourd cultivars on metabolic control in adult diabetic obese Göttingen Minipigs. Methods Twenty streptozotocin-induced diabetic (D) obese Minipigs (body weight ~85 kg) were subdivided in mildly and overtly D pigs and fed 500 g of obesogenic diet per day for a period of three weeks, supplemented with 20 g dried powdered Bitter gourd or 20 g dried powdered grass as isoenergetic control in a cross-over, within-subject design. Results Bitter gourd fruit from the cultivars “Palee” and “Good healthy” reduced plasma fructosamine concentrations in all pigs combined (from 450±48 to 423±53 and 490±50 to 404±48 μmol/L, both p<0.03, respectively) indicating improved glycemic control by 6% and 17%. These effects were statistically confirmed in mildly D pigs but not in overtly D pigs. In mildly D pigs, the other three cultivars of fruit showed consistent numerical but no significant improvements in glycemic control. The composition of Bitter gourd fruit was studied by metabolomics profiling and analysis identified three metabolites from the class of triterpenoids (Xuedanoside H, Acutoside A, Karaviloside IX) that were increased in the cultivars “Palee” (>3.9-fold) and “Good healthy” (>8.9-fold) compared to the mean of the other three cultivars. Bitter gourd stems and leaves from the cultivar “Bilai” increased plasma insulin concentrations in all pigs combined by 28% (from 53±6 to 67±9 pmol/L, p<0.03). The other two cultivars of stems and leaves showed consistent numerical but no significant increases in plasma insulin concentrations. The effects on plasma insulin concentrations were confirmed in mildly D pigs but not in overtly D pigs. Conclusions Fruits of Bitter gourd improve glycemic control and stems-leaves of Bitter gourd increase plasma insulin concentrations in an obese pig model for mild diabetes. The effects of Bitter gourd fruit on glycemic control seem consistent but relatively small and cultivar specific which may explain the varying results of human trials reported in the literature.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of bitter gourd (BG) leftovers (stems and leaves) as an alternative dietary ingredient on pig performance, carcass characteristics, serum parameters (urea, insulin, and leptin levels), and faecal consistency. Healthy Tempo × Great Yorkshire and Landrace pigs (N = 240; 120 gilts and 120 boars) weighing 25.8 kg (9–10 weeks of age) were randomly assigned to three treatments (eight pens per treatment; each pen with five gilts and five boars). The three treatments consisted of a non-supplemented commercial diet (control; CON) and a CON diet supplemented with 6.5 g/kg BG (BG1) or 13 g/kg BG (BG2). Pigs were fed the experimental diets until slaughter (120 kg body weight; BW). Feed intake was recorded daily and calculated for each experimental phase (i.e., days 0–36, days 36–66, days 66–98, and the overall experimental period). Average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated. The frequencies of visiting the feed station and of feeding were recorded daily. Faecal scores (FS) for consistency were measured per pen twice weekly. On the day of slaughter, two pigs per pen (one male and one female) were randomly selected for the measurement of muscle thickness and blood collection. At the slaughterhouse, carcass weight, dressing percentage, back fat thickness, muscle depth, and lean meat percentage were recorded. Data were analysed using ANOVA, with the pen as the experimental unit. Diets BG1 or BG2 did not affect the performance of the pigs, except for a significant decrease in the ADG of the pigs fed the BG2 diet in the feeding period of 50–80 kg. However, no differences in performance were observed in the overall experimental period. Faecal scores, carcass quality, and serum levels of urea, insulin, and leptin were also not affected by the diet. In summary, leftovers (stems and leaves) of BG can be successfully added to the diet of growing-finishing pigs without interfering with performance and carcass characteristics.

Porcine digestible peptides (PDP) are high-quality hydrolysed proteins obtained from porcine intestinal mucosa as a by-product of the heparin manufacturing process. PDP contain bioactive peptides and are used as alternative protein sources in several animal species, including pigs. We aimed to explore the (carry-over) effects of feeding PDP to weaned piglets on performance and systemic cytokine levels of pigs followed until slaughter. A total of 192 piglets were allocated to one of two dietary treatments: control (CON) or PDP weaner diets. PDP was included at 5.0% until day 13 post-weaning at the expense of skimmed milk powder and partial replacement of soybean meal, and at 2.5% between days 13 and 34 post-weaning at the expense of soy protein concentrate. Grower-finishers were fed commercial diets according to a 3-phase feeding scheme until slaughter, when carcass traits were determined. Six pigs were housed per weaner pen and eight per grower-finisher pen with 16 and 10 pens per treatment, respectively. Pigs were weighed at the start and at the end of each phase, and feed intake was recorded. Faecal consistency was recorded twice a week in the weaner facility. Ten pigs per treatment were sampled for blood at days 13, 34 and 69 post-weaning. We found that PDP-fed piglets had a higher feed intake in the first two weeks post-weaning compared to CON-fed piglets (+32 g/pig per day; P = 0.02). Moreover, piglets in the PDP group showed improved feed conversion between days 13 and 34 versus the CON group (1.36 vs 1.43; P = 0.03). Piglets that were fed with PDP in the weaner diets tended to grow faster in the grower-finisher period (+32 g/pig per day; P = 0.07), tended to reach slaughter age earlier (129.9 vs 131.5 days; P = 0.07) and had a lower dressing percentage at slaughter (76.3 vs 76.7%, P = 0.045) than piglets previously fed with CON. Additionally, PDP-fed piglets showed higher serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-12 (P = 0.02), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (P = 0.02), interferon-gamma (P = 0.03) and IL-8 (at day 34 post-weaning, P = 0.06) as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines transforming growth factor-beta (P = 0.02), IL-4 (P = 0.04) and IL-10 (at day 34 post-weaning, P = 0.02). No significant differences among dietary treatments were observed regarding faecal consistency of weaned piglets and carcass weight, lean meat percentage, muscle depth, and back fat thickness at slaughter. We conclude that feeding PDP, as an alternative to conventional milk and soy protein sources, showed positive effects on pig performance, not only during the provisioning period but also thereafter into the grower-finisher phase.

In many countries, soybean meal (SBM) is the premier protein source in pig diets because of the optimal amino acid (AA) content. However, due to developments in sustainability and local availability of SBM, it is of great interest for the feed industry to explore the effect on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of replacing SBM inclusion in pig diets by alternative protein sources. The objective of the current study was to explore the effect of partially and/or totally replacement of SBM in the starter, grower and finisher diets formulating based on the same NE, dig AA/NE, and similar AA profile on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs (25 kg to slaughter at ±120 kg). In total, 120 boars and 120 gilts (Top Pi x T20) entered the experiment with an average body weight of 23.4 ± 1.87 kg and age of 61.4 ± 1.43 days. Pigs were blocked and randomly allocated to four dietary treatments depending on the inclusion level of SBM in the starter, grower and finisher phases. In treatment 1, the starter, grower and finisher feeds contained 16.0, 12.0 and 8.0% of SBM, respectively. In treatment 2, the starter, grower and finisher feeds contained 10.8, 8.1 and 0% of SBM, respectively. In treatment 3, the starter, grower and finisher feeds contained 5.3, 0 and 0% of SBM, respectively. In treatment 4, none of the feeds contained SBM. Pigs were housed in pens with 10 pigs per pen. The pens were equipped with individual feeding stations (IVO-G stations), which allowed for the measurement of individual feed intake. Pigs were individually weighed at the start of the experiment and at the diet changes at approximately 50 and 80 kg body weight and slaughter (±120 kg). During the grower phase, pigs fed according to treatment 1 showed reduced ADFI than the other treatment groups (1.91 vs. 2.0, 2.02 and 2.02 kg/d, P = 0.021) and subsequently decreased ADG (882 g/d vs. 927, 924 and 948 g/d, P = 0.005). Similar results were found during the starter + grower phases, where the pigs fed according to treatment 1 showed less ADFI than the other treatment groups pigs (1.63 vs. 1.71, 1.73 and 1.71 kg/d, P = 0.013) and subsequently less ADG (842 vs. 878, 878 and 874 g/d, P = 0.039). No major differences were found regarding the carcass characteristics. In conclusion, feed intake and growth performance were improved and carcass quality was not penalized by totally or partially replacing the SBM by other protein rich feedstuffs including rape seed meal (RSM), sunflower seed meal (SFM) and peas in diets for growing-fishing pigs.

The objective of this study is to provide insight in how to formulate pig diets in the most economical way in times of high feedstuff prices. Regarding this, energy level and the way of calculating energy in swine feeds will be taking into consideration, as well as the nutrients to energy ratios. Moreover, the effects of diet concentration on feed intake and growth performance of pigs will be evaluated. The lowest cost per energy value in swine feeds can be assessed by iterative simulations in least cost calculations using linear programming. In this case, a fixed nutrient to energy ratio has to be maintained for each cost per energy value that is calculated. Since feedstuff prices are subject to changes, these calculations have to be made on a regular basis. A dataset of 6 growth performance experiments in growing finishing (GF) pigs varying in energy values performed at Schothorst Feed Research (SFR) was analyzed. While decreasing the net energy value of the feed (at fixed nutrient to energy ratios), feed intake and energy conversion increased, while energy intake, daily gain and feed conversion ratio decreased. In general, pigs fed diets with reduced energy concentration are prone to maintain constant daily energy intake by eating more feed until feed intake is limited by other factors, such as physical gut capacity or certain dietary components (Li and Patience, 2017). In the same SFR analysis, the effect of the lysine (and other essential AA) to NE ratio was investigated. While decreasing this ratio, feed intake and energy intake were unaffected, while daily gain decreased, and the feed conversion ratio and energy conversion ratio increased. Another analysis of several GF experiments conducted at SFR was done to assess the optimal amino ccid (SID EAA) content of grower/finisher pig feeds in relation to technical performance, carcass characteristics and profitability. It was concluded that decreasing the SID AA/NE ratio to a certain extend will decrease technical performance (ADG and lean meat %) but increase economical results. However, it must be taken into account that optimal economic performance depends on market situation (feedstuff prices) and production goals (optimal ADG, carcass quality or costs/kg pork). In the current situation with high feedstuff prices, the inclusion of fibrous rich byproducts in the Dutch market may be more economical than corn and soybean meal. For an optimal estimation of the proportion of energy of those fibrous byproducts that will be attributed to the growth and maintenance energy requirements of the pigs, the net energy system is more appropriate than the metabolizable energy (ME) system, because the ME system overestimates the proportion of energy that will be used for growth and maintenance.