Biological invasions have increased significantly with the tremendous growth of international trade and transport. Hematophagous arthropods can be vectors of infectious and potentially lethal pathogens and parasites, thus constituting a growing threat to humans-especially when associated with biological invasions. Today, several major vector-borne diseases, currently described as emerging or re-emerging, are expanding in a world dominated by climate change, land-use change and intensive transportation of humans and goods. In this review, we retrace the historical trajectory of these invasions to better understand their ecological, physiological and genetic drivers and their impacts on ecosystems and human health. We also discuss arthropod management strategies to mitigate future risks by harnessing ecology, public health, economics and social-ethnological considerations. Trade and transport of goods and materials, including vertebrate introductions and worn tires, have historically been important introduction pathways for the most prominent invasive hematophagous arthropods, but sources and pathways are likely to diversify with future globalization. Burgeoning urbanization, climate change and the urban heat island effect are likely to interact to favor invasive hematophagous arthropods and the diseases they can vector. To mitigate future invasions of hematophagous arthropods and novel disease outbreaks, stronger preventative monitoring and transboundary surveillance measures are urgently required. Proactive approaches, such as the use of monitoring and increased engagement in citizen science, would reduce epidemiological and ecological risks and could save millions of lives and billions of dollars spent on arthropod control and disease management. Last, our capacities to manage invasive hematophagous arthropods in a sustainable way for worldwide ecosystems can be improved by promoting interactions among experts of the health sector, stakeholders in environmental issues and policymakers (e.g. the One Health approach) while considering wider social perceptions.

BACKGROUND A great number of areas favourable for the proliferation of mosquitoes are found in farmland, the most favourable being market gardens and rice paddies. The only means of limiting crop pests (AGRI) and mosquito vectors of human pathogens (AC = antivectorial control) in agricultural environments consists of incorporating systemic or translaminar insecticides into fertilizers (AGRIAC). The plant used in this study was the chili pepper (Capsicum chinensis). Experiments were carried out with Myzus persicae aphid pests and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. Fertilizers were applied in association with thiacloprid, cyromazine, azadirachtin and Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) + Bacillus sphaericus (Bs) insecticides. Chili pepper seedlings were dried to assess the amount of insecticide in their tissues. RESULTS NPK + thiacloprid and NPK + azadirachtin remained efficient against aphids for 28 days, whereas Bti + Bs had to be added to both mixtures to make them efficient against Ae. albopictus larvae. NPK + cyromazine remained active against both aphids and mosquitoes for 15 days. The search for insecticide residues in chili pepper showed that untreated plants displayed natural toxicity to Ae. albopictus larvae. The toxic effects induced by the capsaicinoid compounds inside the plant add up to the insecticide action of thiacloprid, cyromazine and azadiractin. CONCLUSION The AGRIAC concept allows for an innovative vector control method that can manage aphid pests and mosquitoes while providing plants with the needed fertilizer.

In this experiment carried out on Caribbean chili pepper plants ( Capsicum chinensis ), the bio-insecticide azadirachtin in combination with an NPK fertilizer proved to have a greater lethal impact on the larvae of Aedes albopictus than each substance on its own. This synergistic effect is noticeably important when both inputs are sprayed directly on the leaves of the plant (foliar application). While the plants treated with azadirachtin or NPK alone cause a 33.6% and 36.4% mortality respectively of the Ae. albopictus larvae, the combination of the two inputs induces a 74.4% mortality on the mosquito larvae. To account for this synergistic effect phenomenon inside the plant, the azadirachtin + NPK combination most likely interacts with the capsaicinoid compounds naturally produced by the plant. Not only does this study carried out on azadirachtin reveal major results but the methodology itself offers a most interesting approach on how to boost the agricultural inputs within the plants. As a matter of fact, this research axis demands developing since the control of pests harmful to men has been dramatically lacking insecticide molecules acting on new targets over the past three decades. Graphical Abstract

Big cities have thrived on all continents, so have domestic and industrial wastes not to mention the often irrational use of agricultural inputs (fertilizers and pesticides) detrimental to plants and animals. One hundred and eighty million tons of fertilizers and 2.4 million tons of pesticides are spread every year worldwide. Such pollutions, whether urban or rural, have a significant impact on the biology of mosquitoes. Today some urban spaces have properly become a land of plenty for mosquitoes. The combined use of fertilizer and pesticides in the country, quite paradoxically also favor their proliferation. Ironically the very reasons that account for the multitudes of mosquitoes are the exact reasons responsible for the depletion of biodiversity.

In recent decades, the invasive Aedes albopictus vector has spread across Europe and is responsible for numerous outbreaks of autochthonous arboviral disease. The aim of this study was to identify epidemiological and sociological risk factors related to individual levels of exposure to Aedes albopictus bites. A multidisciplinary survey was conducted with volunteer blood donors living in areas either colonised or not by Aedes albopictus in mainland France. Individual levels of exposure were evaluated by measuring the IgG level specific to Aedes albopictus saliva. The most striking risk factors concerned the localisation and characteristics of the dwelling. Individuals living in areas colonised prior to 2009 or recently colonised (between 2010 and 2012) had higher anti-salivary gland extract IgG levels compared with those who were living in areas not yet colonised by Ae. albopictus. The type of dwelling did not seem to impact the level of exposure to Aedes bites. People living in apartments had a higher anti-salivary gland extract IgG level than those living in individual houses but the difference was not statistically significant. Interestingly, the presence of air conditioning or window nets was associated with a noticeable reduction in bite intensity.

Over the past decade, a significant increase in the circulation of infectious agents was observed. With the spread and emergence of epizootics, zoonoses, and epidemics, the risks of pandemics became more and more critical. Human and animal health has also been threatened by antimicrobial resistance, environmental pollution, and the development of multifactorial and chronic diseases. This highlighted the increasing globalization of health risks and the importance of the human–animal–ecosystem interface in the evolution and emergence of pathogens. A better knowledge of causes and consequences of certain human activities, lifestyles, and behaviors in ecosystems is crucial for a rigorous interpretation of disease dynamics and to drive public policies. As a global good, health security must be understood on a global scale and from a global and crosscutting perspective, integrating human health, animal health, plant health, ecosystems health, and biodiversity. In this study, we discuss how crucial it is to consider ecological, evolutionary, and environmental sciences in understanding the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases and in facing the challenges of antimicrobial resistance. We also discuss the application of the “One Health” concept to non-communicable chronic diseases linked to exposure to multiple stresses, including toxic stress, and new lifestyles. Finally, we draw up a list of barriers that need removing and the ambitions that we must nurture for the effective application of the “One Health” concept. We conclude that the success of this One Health concept now requires breaking down the interdisciplinary barriers that still separate human and veterinary medicine from ecological, evolutionary, and environmental sciences. The development of integrative approaches should be promoted by linking the study of factors underlying stress responses to their consequences on ecosystem functioning and evolution. This knowledge is required for the development of novel control strategies inspired by environmental mechanisms leading to desired equilibrium and dynamics in healthy ecosystems and must provide in the near future a framework for more integrated operational initiatives.

Cyt1A98 is a novel cytolytic protein, from BUPM98 Bacillus thuringiensis strain, characterized by its synergistic activity with B. thuringiensis kurstaki toxins against lepidopteran larvae. In this study, we evidenced that Cyt1A98 improves the toxicity of B. thuringiensis kurstaki toxins against Aedes aegypti larvae. In fact, the strain BNS3pHTcyt1A98 exhibited a larvicidal activity of about 849-fold of that of BNS3pHTBlue against A. aegypti. The molecular and biochemical characterizations, of cyt1A98 gene and its product, were achieved. Cyt1A98 had an LC50 value of about 126.56 mg l(-1) against A. aegypti larvae. Compared to Cyt1Aa of B. thuringiensis israelensis, Cyt1A98 amino acid sequence harbours three substitutions of three conserved amino adds among Cyt1Aa family members (Ser42Pro, Pro82A1a, Met188Thr). The Cyt1A98 protein structural analysis evidenced more flexibility than Cyt1Aa. According to the high fluctuation observed for the residue Pro42, the amino acid at position 42 is implicated in the flexibility property of Cyt1Aa especially for the alpha C and alpha D helices, involved in the penetration into the cell membrane. The toxicity improvement could be probably due to the higher flexibility combined with the specific affinity toward dipteran larvae. The Cyt1A/B. thuringiensis kurstaki Cry toxins model provides a potential molecular genetic strategy for an efficient bioinsecticide. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Attempts have been made to express or to merge different Cry proteins in order to enhance toxic effects against various insects. Cry1A proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis form a typical bipyramidal parasporal crystal and their protoxins contain a highly conserved C-terminal region. A chimerical gene, called cry(4Ba-1Ac), formed by a fusion of the N-terminus part of cry4Ba and the C-terminus part of cry1Ac, was constructed. Its transformation to an acrystalliferous B. thuringiensis strain showed that it was expressed as a chimerical protein of 116 kDa, assembled in spherical to amorphous parasporal crystals. The chimerical gene cry(4Ba-1Ac) was introduced in a B. thuringiensis kurstaki strain. In the generated crystals of the recombinant strain, the presence of Cry(4Ba-1Ac) was evidenced by MALDI-TOF. The recombinant strain showed an important increase of the toxicity against Culex pipiens larvae (LC50 = 0.84 mg l−1 ± 0.08) compared to the wild type strain through the synergistic activity of Cry2Aa with Cry(4Ba-1Ac). The enhancement of toxicity of B. thuringiensis kurstaki expressing Cry(4Ba-1Ac) compared to that expressing the native toxin Cry4Ba, might be related to its a typical crystallization properties. The developed fusion protein could serve as a potent toxin against different pests of mosquitoes and major crop plants.

Chemical fertilizers are used everywhere, which often pollute the breeding sites of mosquitoes. In this laboratory study, the consequences on Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) and Anopheles gambiae (Giles) (Diptera: Culicidae) of water-containing plant matter (PM) alone, or in association with an NPK type of fertilizer (PM+NPK), were evaluated. To obtain a 20% imaginal emergence of An. gambiae (IEt20), the bioassays carried out with PM have evidenced that its larvae need four times as much food as for Ae. aegypti larvae. The PM+NPK combinations significantly improve the survival rates of both mosquitoes multiplying the percentages of imaginal emergence by 1.7-3 (synergistic effect). The log-probit analysis of the adult emergence also reveals that the environments containing fertilizers accelerates by two to four times the development of the mosquito larvae.

Background: In this laboratory study we measured the trophic performances of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus larvae (Diptera: Culicidae), both being vectors of the dengue fever, chikungunya and zika virus in the world. Methods: Depending on the quantities of plant material contained in the breeding sites, the bioassays enabled to assess the times it took for 50% of imaginal emergence to occur (IEt50). They also enabled to determine the amounts of plant material needed for 50% of adult emergence (IE50).Results: Water containing 3.3 g of plant material per liter allowed 50% of Ae. albopictus adults to emerge within 8 days (IEt50), against 60 days at 0.5g/liter. As for Ae. aegypti, the IEt50 took 8 days at 3.3g/l against 29 days at 1.7g/l. The IE50 also revealed that 0.61g of plant material were needed for a 50% of adult emergence of Ae. albopictus. To reach the same survival rate among Ae. aegypti, the larvae must grow in an environment twice as rich in food supply. Conclusion: This research work has revealed that the Ae. albopictus larvae can develop in water collections where the shortage of organic material hinders or compromises the development and survival of Ae. aegypti. The outstanding trophic performances of Ae. albopictus would thus partly account for the invasive character of Ae. albopictus, as well as the dying out of its competitor Ae. aegypti in the regions of the world shared by both species.

Individual crystal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis exhibit variable levels of insecticidal activities against mosquito larvae. In all cases, they are much less active compared to the whole crystal proteins due to described complex synergistic interactions among them. In the present study we investigated the effects of Cyt1A98 (a Cyt1Aa type protein) on Cry4BLB (a Cry4Ba type toxin) insecticidal activity toward the dengue vector Aedes aegypti. The bioassay analyses demonstrated the ability of Cyt1A98 protein to enhance Cry4BLB toxin larvicidal activity even at a low proportion in the mixture (1%). In vitro interaction assays showed that Cyt1A98 provides supplementary binding sites for Cry4BLB in A. aegypti BBMVs. Moreover, it enhances the formation of Cry4BLB oligomeric structure. These results support that Cyt1A98 protein could act as a membrane-bound receptor fixing Cry4BLB δ-endotoxins and promoting its oligomerization.

BACKGROUND Plant saucers are an important larval habitat for Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus in peridomestic situations. Because NPK fertilisers in plant containers tend to enhance the oviposition of these species, we investigated the effects of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis, spinosad, pyriproxyfen and diflubenzuron larvicides in combination with fertiliser on the adult emergence and fecundity of the mosquitoes coming from plant saucers in controlled greenhouse experiments. NPK + larvicide (NPK-LAV) treatments were tested on Ae. aegypti. Each treatment was compared with water and with fertiliser alone on a total of five houseplants and their saucers. The fertilising treatment was renewed every 30-45 days. RESULTS With less than 5% imaginal emergence, the NPK + spinosad 0.5% treatment remained effective for 30 days. Both NPK + pyriproxyfen 0.1% and NPK + diflubenzuron 0.25% were effective for 45 days. The average number of eggs laid in the three treatments was similar to the NPK treatment, indicating that spinosad, pyriproxyfen and diflubenzuron did not alter the attraction effect of the fertiliser on egg laying. NPK + pyriproxyfen and NPK + diflubenzuron also had ovicidal activity and an important impact on the fecundity of the Ae. aegypti female imagos and the fertility of their eggs. CONCLUSION The addition of NPK fertiliser to insecticides can increase larval control of Aedes mosquitoes. This innovative measure for personal protection, which is harmless for both humans and animals, would be an additional support for the community-based actions led by the institutional services for vector control. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mayotte, a small island in the Indian Ocean, has been affected for many years by vector-borne diseases. Malaria, Bancroftian filariasis, dengue, chikungunya and Rift Valley fever have circulated or still circulate on the island. They are all transmitted by Culicidae mosquitoes. To limit the impact of these diseases on human health, vector control has been implemented for more than 60 years on Mayotte. In this study, we assessed the resistance levels of four major vector species (Anopheles gambiae, Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus) to two types of insecticides: i) the locally currently-used insecticides (organophosphates, pyrethroids) and ii) alternative molecules that are promising for vector control and come from different insecticide families (bacterial toxins or insect growth regulators). When some resistance was found to one of these insecticides, we characterized the mechanisms involved.

The SIRIS multicriteria analysis was applied to 129 insecticides to identify those which could be potentially used as larvicides and/or adulticides in vector control against mosquitoes. Their selection was made without a priori restrictions, even on the basis of criteria of toxicity or regulatory interdictions. The unique condition was that they had to be already marketed. Each insecticide was described by six toxicity/ecotoxicity criteria and five exposure/environmental fate criteria identified as important by a panel of experts with complementary skills. A scenario for the larvicides and another one for the aldulticides were considered. The toxicity/ecotoxicity criteria were ranked differently in the two scenarios while the same hierarchy was used in both scenarios for the exposure/environmental fate criteria. In addition, only 114 substances were considered for the adulticide scenario because some insecticides can only be used as larvicides on mosquitoes. Each insecticide being characterized by two SIRIS scores, one score value per hierarchy, a map was designed for each scenario. The substances located in the left bottom part of each map are the most interesting because they present low SIRIS score values on both the Toxicity/Ecotoxicity and Exposure/ Environmental fate scales. Their interest as potential candidates in vector control was discussed. Nevertheless, the need to complete this multicriteria identification by a full risk assessment study is a necessary condition before their use.

Outre l’apparition de resistances aux insecticides, l’evolution de la reglementation europeenne en matiere d’utilisation de produits biocides entraine le retrait progressif de substances actives, qui limite la panoplie des produits utilisables a des fins de lutte antivectorielle. Sur l’ile de la Reunion, les traitements de lutte antivectorielle etaient realises quasi‐exclusivement avec le temephos (larvicide) et la deltamethrine (adulticide).Pour limiter le developpement des resistances, il est necessaire de varier les substances actives utilisees, de trouver des substances moins toxiques, d’associer differentes methodes et/ou plusieurs substances actives pour mieux lutter contre les moustiques. Quelles associations pourraient constituer des pistes prometteuses pour diversifier les modes d’actions et entrainer des effets synergiques, encore sous-exploites dans le domaine de la lutte antivectorielle ? Avant de repondre a ces questions, des travaux de recherche ont ete menes, 2008 a 2011, tant au niveau operationnel, que sur le terrain et au laboratoire.

Several mosquito-borne diseases affect the Western Indian Ocean islands. Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus is one of these vectors and transmits filariasis, Rift Valley and West Nile viruses and the Japanese encephalitis. To limit the impact of these diseases on public health, considerable vector control efforts have been implemented since the 50s, mainly through the use of neurotoxic insecticides belonging to Organochlorines (OC), Organophosphates (OP) and pyrethroids (PYR) families. However, mosquito control failures have been reported on site, and they were probably due to the selection of resistant individuals in response to insecticide exposure. In this study, we used different approaches to establish a first regional assessment of the levels and mechanisms of resistance to various insecticides. Bioassays were used to evaluate resistance to various insecticides, enzyme activity was measured to assess the presence of metabolic resistances through elevated detoxification, and molecular identification of known resistance alleles was investigated to determine the frequency of target-site mutations. These complementary approaches showed that resistance to the most used insecticides families (OC, OP and PYR) is widespread at a regional scale. However, the distribution of the different resistance genes is quite heterogeneous among the islands, some being found at high frequencies everywhere, others being frequent in some islands and absent in others. Moreover, two resistance alleles displayed clinal distributions in Mayotte and La Réunion, probably as a result of a heterogeneous selection due to local treatment practices. These widespread and diverse resistance mechanisms reduce the capacity of resistance management through classical strategies (e.g. insecticide rotation). In case of a disease outbreak, it could undermine the efforts of the vector control services, as only few compounds could be used. It thus becomes urgent to find alternatives to control populations of Cx. p. quinquefasciatus in the Indian Ocean.

A La Martinique, face a la progression de la dengue et a la possible reapparition du paludisme, la recherche d’insecticides potentiellement utilisables en lutte antivectorielle est cruciale. On recherche des strategies nouvelles pour combattre plus efficacement le moustique Aedes aegypti, vecteur de ces maladies. Sachant qu’un pesticide agit sur une ou plusieurs cibles bien determinees, une liste initiale des insecticides deja commercialises dans le monde a ete etablie. Parmi ces substances actives considerees a priori comme efficaces pour la lutte antivectorielle, figurent trois larvicides : le spinosad, le pyriproxyfene et le diflubenzuron. Ces trois candidats ont ete testes comparativement au Bacillus thuringiensis var israelensis (Bti).

In this laboratory study, we investigated how the biological cycle of Anopheles gambiae s.s. (VKPR strain) would be like when grew in an environment containing more or less plant matter (2.5 or 5 g/l) and fertilizer (8-12-8 or 17-23-17 mg/l). Half of the environments studied were not exposed to insecticide (control) whereas the other half was submitted to deltamethrin treatment at the concentration of 0.015 mg/l. The bioassays showed that 2.5 g/l of plant matter in water are not sufficient to feed the hundred larvae, each breeding site contains. Treating these breeding sites with deltamethrin reversed the situation as it decreased the competition for food resources and allowed the surviving larvae to share the small amount of food enabling them to pursue their development until adults. If the introduction of NPK in untreated sites has not improved the nutritive qualities of the water, in the treated sites it multiplied the number of emerging adults by 2.5. In the waters containing 5 g/l of plant matter, the larvae did not undergo feeding competition and the impact of insecticide followed of a more traditional selection scheme that expressed itself by a lower number of emerging adults. In these environments treated or non-treated where plant matter is abundant, adding NPK brings food supplement to the larvae therefore increases the survival rate of An. gambiae. To conclude, whether in habitats with little or much plant matter, NPK presence in water results in larger adults with generally, more soluble proteins.