Mating disruption for leafrollers has been conducted on a commercial scale using a single multispecies pheromone dispenser on contiguous blocks of cherries in Central Otago for 4 years Pheromone trap and packhouse results were collected from isolated untreated (654 ha) and pheromonetreated cherry orchard areas (764 ha) in the Cromwell district In untreated cherry orchards catches of light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) were exceptionally high (38 males/trap/day) with lower catches of Planotortrix octo (025 males/ trap/day) Catches of both species were strongly disrupted in the treated areas reducing E postvittana to 00036 moths/trap/day and P octo to nil Trap catches of both species have increased steadily over 5 years (2008/09 to 20012/13) in blocks not using mating disruption Packhouse results showed that all of the fruit inspected from both treated and untreated areas were free of leafroller infestations in 2012/13 Insecticide use in the pheromonetreated areas was reduced by one application compared with the areas without pheromone

New Zealand flower thrips (NZFT) can damage nectarine fruits during the six weeks from flowering. Cost-effective control strategies depend on the ability to predict when NZFT numbers will be high. Sampling carried out on gorse from July to November and on fruit trees between September and October established that few NZFT overwintered in Central Otago (CO), and hence that most of the thrips infestations on fruit trees in spring originate elsewhere. The source and possible route of NZFT into CO in spring was investigated using wind speed, wind direction and temperature data collected at several meteorological stations in Canterbury and Otago. The probable trajectories for the period prior to the arrival of high numbers of NZFT at Clyde (CO) were calculated and the departure conditions characterised. Flights appear to have been initiated during higher than average temperatures and northeasterly or northwesterly winds in Canterbury. Transport by north or northeast winds through the Mackenzie Basin seemed likely. Origins from within Canterbury probably varied, as did routes between mountains, flight times varied from 12 to 28 hours. The diversity of possible source sites and wind patterns explains the poor performance of a previous predictive model.

The ability of New Zealand flower thrips (NZFT) to tolerate cold temperatures was investigated Thrips were collected from a range of natural sources in Central Otago over 2 years Some adult NZFT (predominantly females) survived for up to 2 months on peach fruit at 01C; LT 50 354 days and LT 99 707 days Plant material containing NZFT was exposed for 24 h to 10 75 5 25 and 0C and NZFT mortality measured Irrespective of the time of year when NZFT were collected mortality was similar after 24 h at 25C to that at 0C (means 46 47) but increased with decreasing temperature (mean mortality 225 at 5C 663 at 75C and 820 at 10C) From 75C downwards responses to changes in temperature varied between seasons (P

This work was undertaken to identify floral compound(s) produced by honeysuckle flowers, Lonicera japonica (Thunberg), that mediate the attraction of New Zealand flower thrips Thrips obscuratus (Crawford). Volatiles were collected during the day and night and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine their emission over these two periods. Nine compounds were identified in the headspace; the main compound was linalool, and the other compounds were germacrene D, E,E-alpha-farnesene, nerolidol, cis-jasmone, cis-3-hexenyl acetate, hexyl acetate, cis-hexenyl tiglate, and indole. There was a quantitative difference between day and night volatiles, with cis-3-hexenyl acetate, hexyl acetate, cis-hexenyl tiglate, and cis-jasmone emitted in higher amounts during the day compared to the night. When the compounds were tested individually in field trapping experiments, only cis-jasmone attracted New Zealand flower thrips in a significant number. In another field trapping experiment, cis-jasmone caught similar numbers of New Zealand flower thrips compared to a floral blend formulated to mimic the ratios of the compounds emitted during the day, while catch with the night-emitted floral blend was not significantly different from the control. Subsequently, two field trapping experiments were conducted to determine the optimal attraction dose for cis-jasmone, a range of 1-100 mg loaded onto a red rubber stopper was tested, and the highest catches were in traps baited with 100 mg loading. A higher range of 100-1000 mg loaded into polyethylene vials was tested, and the highest catch was in traps baited with 500 mg. In another experiment aimed at comparing the attraction efficacy of cis-jasmone with the two other known thrips attractants (ethyl nicotinate and p-anisaldehyde), ethyl nicotinate showed the highest trap catch followed by cis-jasmone. A smaller number of Thrips tabaci (Lindeman) was attracted to traps baited with cis-jasmone. These results suggest that cis-jasmone might act as a kairomone that mediates the attraction of New Zealand flower thrips to the flowers of the Japanese honeysuckle.

Bacterial blast, caused by Pseudomonas syringae, has been a problem on apricots growing in Central Otago for more than fifty years. The disease affects tree health and fruit finish. A copper-based programme was developed to control bacterial blast in the 1950's and has generally been retained, with some extension into spring. However, there is now considerable environmental pressure to replace copper. Recent trials in Central Otago compared a single application of sulphur or copper applied to three blocks of apricot cv. 'Sundrop' at the late dormant stage. On two orchards, four rows of mature apricots cv. 'Sundrop' were treated with an airblast sprayer applying 124 g A copper/100 litres (copper oxide) and another four rows with 140 g ai sulphur/100 litres as Kumulus (R) on 19 August 2004. On a third orchard, an airblast sprayer applied 61 g ai copper/100 litres (copper hydroxide) or 160 g ai/100 litres sulphur (Kumulus (R)) to fifty 'Sundrop' apricot trees on 16 August 2004 in a split block design. The proportion of fruit from the sulphur- and copper-treated trees showing bacterial symptoms was assessed at harvest (n = 500-2000 fruit). The trees that had received the sulphur programme in the first two orchards produced half as many fruit with bacterial blast symptoms as those that received the copper programme. There was no significant difference between the treatments in the third orchard (P < 0.05), where the level of infected fruit was high (25 and 26%). The bacteria responsible for the spotting on the fruit were identified as Pseudomonas syringae at each site. Investigations are continuing into the effect of sulphur on fruit finish and yield, together with its long-term effect on tree health. The use of sulphur on apricots is currently not recommended in New Zealand.

New Zealand flower thrips Thrips obscuratus (Crawford) (NZFT) feeds on the nectar and pollen of stonefruit flowers and was thought to then disappear from orchards for 23 months until the fruit ripen Aerial populations of NZFT were sampled in Central Otago orchards using white sticky traps Samples were taken in a peach orchard for 6 months from flowering until after harvest and in two cherry orchards for six weeks during harvest In all three orchards populations of NZFT reached high numbers in December In the peach block NZFT numbers peaked in December several weeks before the fruit began to ripen It was concluded that NZFT can live in stonefruit orchards probably feeding on newly emerged leaves of peaches or cherries or in the vegetation of the irrigated orchard floor Trapped thrips could also have come from other blocks within the larger orchard areas or from outside sources

The survival and development rate of Ctenopseustis obliquana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larvae, and weight of pupae were measured on detached mature leaves of two apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) progenies derived from the resistant (R) parent 'Prima' crossed with the susceptible (S) cultivars 'Liberty' (n = 44) and 'Red Delicious' (n = 35). The R:S ratio in both these modified backcross families did not differ significantly from the 1:1 expected in the case of monogenic resistance, carried in a heterozygous condition in the resistant parent. The survival to pupation on the individual seedlings was either zero/very low (R) or high (S). With all resistant seedlings being heterozygous, this indicates that the resistance allele shows complete dominance over the susceptible allele. We have named this putative gene Cob1. The expression of the resistance was found to be influenced by both the colony of C. obliquana used and the time of the season when resistance was assessed. In a separate experiment with another tortricid, there was no survival of Planotortrix octo Dugdale larvae on the apple cultivar 'Prima' and high survival on the cultivars 'Liberty' and 'Red Delicious'. The similarity of the responses of the two leafroller species to these cultivars, and other published evidence concerning Planotortrix excessana (Walker) and Ctenopseustis herana (Felder and Rogerhofer), suggest that the resistance discovered to C. obliquana may be effective against all four endemic tortricid species. The implications of these findings for apple breeding and leafroller control in New Zealand are discussed.

The mature leaves of 38 apple ( Malus domestica Borkh.) ( Rosaceae) cultivars were screened for resistance to laboratory colonies of Epiphyas postvittana ( Walker) and Planotortrix octo Dugdale ( Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) by measuring larval survival and development rate, and pupal weight, in no-choice laboratory bioassays in early summer. There were few cultivar effects on larval mortality but Nevis 1, A40R04T119, and 'Sir Prize' reduced survival of E. postvittana. Effects on development time and weight were correlated, and were integrated into a single measure of resistance R c. R c varied greatly between cultivars for both leafroller species, and identified 15 and 11 cultivars with partial resistance to E. postvittana and P. octo, respectively. A further experiment with three of the cultivars in midsummer, using the laboratory colonies in comparison with new colonies ( from field collected larvae), produced similar results for E. postvittana, but there was no survival of new colony P. octo larvae on two cultivars. These results for P. octo are consistent with other recent research showing extreme cultivar resistance and critical colony and seasonal influences. A series of 4-year field trials with the 38 cultivars showed poor correlation between laboratory and field resistance for the dominant leafroller species in the field, E. postvittana. The combined data, however, identified 'Red Dougherty', 'Sir Prize', and A40R04T119 as potentially useful in breeding for resistance to this species. The implications of these findings for integrated pest management (IPM) programmes and for the breeding of leafroller-resistant apple cultivars are discussed.

Insecticides, fungicides and a bactericide were applied in spring 2001 and 2002 to nectarine trees, to determine the impact of thrips (mainly New Zealand flower thrips, Thrips obscuratus) on summerfruit pathogens. Thrips numbers were assessed over 7 weeks from the beginning of flowering. The insecticide programme increased the proportion of fruit meeting export standards for thrips damage, but did not influence the level of either brown rot, caused by Monilinia fructicola, or the bacterial diseases, bacterial blast (Pseudomonas syringae) and bacterial spot (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni). The fungicide programme reduced the level of brown rot. Cumulative thrips counts were positively correlated with levels of brown rot infection on the fruit at harvest time in 2001/02 (P=0.02) and 2002/03 (P=0.09), and bacterial disease symptoms in 2001/ 02 (P=0.03). It was concluded that New Zealand flower thrips could increase levels of disease in nectarines but the value of treating with insecticides was not clear.

Thrips were sampled by tapping 200 nectarine branches and collecting dislodged insects on a plate or by picking 200 flowers (or fruitlets postflower) and passively extracting thrips using heat Both methods were tested in various weather conditions and at different times of day More thrips were collected by tapping branches than picking flowers/fruitlets particularly postflowering However catches from tapping were greatly influenced by wind speed; temperature had less effect than wind Picking flowers gave more consistent results during bloom than tapping branches and also collected larvae The age of flowers and their aspect on the tree did not affect catches Tapping branches was the better method for export crops where sampling needs to continue after petal fall The picking method is suitable where there is a greater tolerance for thrips damage such as fruit destined for the domestic market

Black cherry aphid Myzus cerasi has the potential to cause major damage to both the shoots and fruit of sweet cherries It has traditionally been treated with insecticides during the growing season from early spring until close to harvest An investigation into the time of arrival of females followed by males in autumn and egg hatch in spring in Central Otago showed that there was potential to achieve some control before flowering by treating either in autumn or spring The trials identified options for use under organic (mineral oil canola oil or pyrethrum) or integrated fruit production systems (mineral oil or pirimicarb) with carefully timed treatments Aphid numbers in spring (assessed in late October) were significantly reduced by treating in either late April of the previous autumn or in late August at the end of egg hatch Further work is needed to develop fully effective control programmes using combinations of autumn and spring treatments

Codling moth is an oligophagous pest which primarily attacks pome fruits. Records of its occurrence in sweet cherries are extremely rare. Despite this, some countries require fumigation of imported sweet cherries for control of codling moth on the grounds that sweet cherry is a host. The reported incidence of codling moth in sweet cherries is reviewed and evidence presented to show a clear non-preference of ovipositing codling moth and their larvae for sweet cherry in the field. This was demonstrated both in a randomised block experiment, where codling moths were given a choice of single trees interplanted with apples, and in orchards where large blocks of infested apples bordered blocks of sweet cherries.The unequivocal results obtained, and the rarity of records of codling moth in sweet cherries, are presented as grounds for removing this fruit from the lists of host plants of codling moth used by quarantine services.

Experiments conducted in both spring and preharvest (summer) aimed to prevent damage to nectarines caused by New Zealand flower thrips Thrips obscuratus and to minimise quarantine problems caused by thrips on export fruit Reflective mulch and three insecticide programmes were compared with the standard taufluvalinate/chlorpyrifos programme in spring Abamectin spinosad and Pyrethrum Plus reduced spring damage but none was more effective than the existing standard At harvest time carbaryl and spinosad plus Nufilm17 reduced thrips numbers 3 days after treatment but carbaryl was the only effective insecticide after 5 days Reflective mulch reduced thrips numbers in spring and preharvest providing a nonchemical alternative for thrips control However supplementary control measures would be needed for this treatment to meet quarantine standards at harvest time Alternative spring and preharvest programmes for both Integrated Fruit Production and organic systems are suggested for nectarines but registration is necessary before some insecticides can be used on summerfruit

Pheromone traps were operated in five regions to determine the impact of trap colour on catch of target and nontarget insects Red or green coloured pheromone sticky traps caught fewer native and introduced bees compared to the standard white traps and yellow or blue traps Honey bees (Apis mellifera) were caught mainly in white followed by blue traps while bumble bees (Bombus spp) were most attracted to blue traps with most of the remainder caught in white traps Native bee (Lasioglossum and Hylaeus spp) catches were greatest in white traps followed by yellow traps with a few in green traps There was no significant difference in catch of the target species Cydia pomonella or Epiphyas postvittana with trap colour Replacement of the white traps with green or red traps is recommended to reduce nontarget impacts on bees

The effects of sulphur and copper on postharvest brown rot (Monilinia fructicola (Wint) Honey) were studied for six years in a BioGro registered apricot block at Clyde Research Centre Central Otago Four treatments of sulphur and/or copper were applied up to 9 times between flowering and harvest Brown rot levels were high in seasons with a high rainfall from November to January (harvest) Sulphur (Kumulus DF) at either 120 or 160 g ai/100 litres or at 80 g with copper (Kocide DF) at 10 g ai/100 litres reduced brown rot levels in cvs Sundrop and CluthaGold Seven organically acceptable alternatives to sulphur were also tested but none were more effective However alternatives to sulphur are needed for use close to harvest to reduce both visible residues and the possible negative effect of sulphur on return bloom

Numbers of adult and larval New Zealand flower thrips Thrips obscuratus were recorded daily on nectarines from flowering (early September) to shuck fall (early November) over 5 years Adults were more common than larvae and occurred throughout this period increasing to their highest numbers in late October Larvae occurred for three weeks from petal fall Adults were released weekly onto bagged nectarine flowers or fruitlets from flowering to shuck fall Damage to the fruit was assessed in November Adults caused the most severe damage when released during flowering; slightly less damage was caused after petal fall and minor damage occurred in the weeks before shuck fall Adult feeding did not affect fruit set Three thresholds based on adult numbers are proposed for determining the need for insecticidal control in an Integrated Fruit Production programme for nectarines These thresholds reflect the decreasing risk of damage through the sensitive period

Numbers of adult and larval New Zealand flower thrips Thrips obscuratus were recorded daily on nectarines from flowering (early September) to shuck fall (early November) over 5 years Adults were more common than larvae and occurred throughout this period increasing to their highest numbers in late October Larvae occurred for three weeks from petal fall Adults were released weekly onto bagged nectarine flowers or fruitlets from flowering to shuck fall Damage to the fruit was assessed in November Adults caused the most severe damage when released during flowering; slightly less damage was caused after petal fall and minor damage occurred in the weeks before shuck fall Adult feeding did not affect fruit set Three thresholds based on adult numbers are proposed for determining the need for insecticidal control in an Integrated Fruit Production programme for nectarines These thresholds reflect the decreasing risk of damage through the sensitive period

A commercial scale hot water bath was tested for the disinfestation of New Zealand flower thrips, Thrips obscuratus (Crawford), on apricots. Treatment in water at 50 degrees C for 2 minutes removed >90% of adults and killed all adults, larvae and eggs. It also reduced residues of iprodione and carbaryl on 'Sundrop' to 14 and 24% respectively of those in untreated fruit. Apricots cv. 'Sundrop' and 'Valleygold' tolerated 50 degrees C for 2 minutes without affecting their quality. Drying the fruit before packing reduced the risk that hot water-treated fruit would develop post-storage rots. Hot water treatment could replace existing preharvest field insecticide applications for thrips control on export fruit.

The New Zealand flower thrips, (Thrips obscuratus Crawford) can damage nectarines, with both adults and larvae feeding on developing fruitlets.As T. obscuratus does not overwinter in Central Otago, it is thought that adults are carried on air currents from Canterbury in spring.We investigated if influxes of thrips as detected by sticky board catches over three seasons could be related to environmental variables.Wind direction in Christchurch and local (Clyde) temperatures were identified as the most important factors affecting thrips movement.A preliminary model was developed to predict influxes over the period of highest damage risk for nectarines.