A randomized controlled trial was conducted in Kenya in 2020 with the objectives being to assess compliance of smallholder dairy farmers (SDF) with farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations, to determine factors associated with compliance, and to determine the impact of these recommendations in reducing cases of subclinical mastitis. A total of 114 SDFs (124 cows) were recruited into the study and randomly allocated into intervention (74 farms) and control (40 farms) groups during the first farm visit. Existing farm-level mastitis control and cow comfort strategies were assessed in both intervention and control farms. Cow parameters (e.g. udder hygiene) were observed or measured from individual cows. A California Mastitis Test (CMT) was done on all quarters and scored from 0 (negative) to 3 (strong positive). All quarters with a CMT score of 2 and 3 were treated with intramammary antibacterial cefapirin preparation according to the label (Cefalak (R)). Intervention farms received farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations at the end of the first visit. On the second farm visit, cow parameters were measured again, CMT was repeated on all quarters on all cows, and compliance with recommendations was assessed and given a percentage score. Control farms were then given their farm-specific recommendations. Regression models were utilized to assess associations with compliance and improvement in CMT scores between visits. Intervention farms received an average of 3.3 and 3.9 recommendations pertaining to mastitis control and cow comfort, respectively. Farms complied with an average of 2.8 and 2.1 mastitis and cow comfort recommendations, respectively, leading to an overall average compliance score of 63.2 % for all recommendations. On the first visit, CMT scores 1 and 2 were significantly higher in quarters among cows on the intervention than control farms. There was a significantly lower proportion of quarters with CMT scores 1 and 2 in the intervention group on the second visit than the first visit and no quarters with CMT score of 3. The principal farmer, type of recommendation and number of recommendations given were significantly associated with compliance to the recommendations. The principal farmer and their age group were significantly associated with quarter CMT scores improving between the first and second visits. Farm-specific mastitis and cow comfort recommendations can significantly reduce the number of cases of subclinical mastitis in SDFs and should thus be included in farmers' training. Farmers should be given a small number of recommendations at a time to enhance compliance.

Background and Aim: East Coast fever (ECF), caused by Theileria parva, is a devastating disease that causes significant economic losses to cattle production in sub-Saharan Africa. Prevention and control of ECF are challenging in pastoral settings due to inadequate epidemiological information. This study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with T. parva infection among calves in different production systems to help design appropriate control interventions. Materials and Methods: Blood samples were collected from 318 calves and tested using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay targeting antibodies against polymorphic immunodominant molecules found on the surface of T. parva. Information on calf characteristics and management practices was also collected during sampling. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to analyze potential risk factors, such as age and acaricide application, where p < 0.05 was considered significant Results: Of the 318 calves sampled, 41 (12.89%) were positive for T. parva, with a higher proportion in pastoral systems (36.58%) than in mixed farming systems (34.10%) and agropastoral systems (29.27%). From univariate analysis, calf age (p = 0.002), body weight (p = 0.001), suckling status (p = 0.026), rectal temperature (p = 0.06), calves on pasture (p = 0.022), other feeds (p = 0.004), feed grown within the farm (p = 0.004), acaricide application (p = 0.001), and acaricide application frequency (p = 0.001) were significantly associated with seropositivity. However, calf age (odds ratio [OR], 0.96; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.91-0.99; p = 0.04), other feeds (OR, 8.82; 95% CI, 1.74-44.63; p = 0.009), and suckling status (OR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.15-0.99; p = 0.05) were significantly associated with T. parva infection in the multivariable mixed logistic model. Conclusion: T. parva is circulating in young calves in the study area (and possibly in cattle populations due to maternal transfer of antibodies to the calves). There is a need for molecular surveillance to determine the presence and burden of T. parva infection.

East Coast fever (ECF), caused by Theileria parva causes devastating loss to livestock keepers in sub-Saharan Africa. A longitudinal study was carried out in Narok County, Kenya between December 2022 and December 2023 to estimate the incidence and risk factors associated with ECF and Theileria parva infection among calves. Calves were recruited within 5 weeks of birth and visited every six weeks. Farm and calf level factors were obtained at every visit through a structured questionnaire. A total of 1849 blood samples were collected and tested using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A multilevel multivariable logistic regression was used to determine associations between the seropositivity and different predictor variables.A total of 313 calves were recruited and 62 seroconverted, 59.7% (37/62) in the agropastoral, 21.0% (13/62) and 19.4% (12/62) in pastoral and mixed farming, respectively. The overall risk of exposure was 26%, with a higher risk in agropastoral system (38%) compared to pastoral (22%) and mixed farming (19%). The ECF-specific morbidity risk was estimated at 14.5% (9/62). The cumulative incidence rate was estimated at 37 cases per 100 calf-years with higher incidence rate in agro-pastoral system. Of the 26 clinically ill calves, nine manifested with classical signs of ECF but only 3 (11.5%) sero-converted. The crude mortality risk was 5.1%, but four calves manifested classical signs of ECF resulting to clinical case-fatality risk of 44.4% (4/9). In the final multivariable model, four variables were found to be significantly associated with T. parva seropositivity; calf age (OR 6.9; P<0.01), calf sex (OR 1.4; P=0.02), acaricide application (OR 0.5; P<0.01) and spraying specific body parts (OR 2.5; P=0.002).The results showed that T. parva was circulating among calves in Narok County. It is recommended that farmers be educated on early detection of ECF and proper tick control measures.

The Nigerian government's policy on agriculture supports productivity enhancements, yet tomato production is constrained by post-harvest losses of up to over 45%. 420 tomato farmers were selected for study in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Multinomial Logit Model was used to determine factors influencing losses while factors influencing adoption and intensity were modelled using Tobit. The results showed the adoption rate of (new technologies) RP was 3.57%, CS = 0.47%, RT = 0.71%, MD =0.71%, CD = 100%. Adoption rate of (traditional method) raffia basket was 100%. For farmers, the highest source of losses was those in storage (70.5%), followed by farm level (14.5%). Results on factors influencing PHL showed that in transit, Modern Technology accentuated losses (p<0.10), while Car/truck ownership mitigated losses (p<0.01) In storage, Modern Technology (p<0.05), Farm Distance (p<0.05), Farm Size (p<0.10), and Own Car/truck ownership (p<0.10) mitigated losses, while only Multiple Cropping (p<0.05) accentuated losses. In marketing, education (p<0.05), modern technology (p<0.10), multiple cropping (P<0.10), and credit access (P<0.10) accentuated losses while age of farmer (p<0.10), years of technology adoption (p<0.10), farm size (p<0.10), and wealth status of farmer (p<0.05) mitigated losses. The results factors influencing adoption and adoption intensity of PHL-reducing technology show that Education (p<0.05), Age (p<0.10), Extension (p<0.10), CS_Information_Sources (p<0.01), RT_Information_Sources (p<0.01), MD_Information_Sources (p<0.05), Labour_sourcesT (p<0.01), Credit_sourcesT (p<0.10), and Farm_Size (p<0.01) were positive and had a significant influence. Education had a quadratic (Education2) negative influence on adoption of PHL reducing technologies. In conclusion, extension services exposure, large farm holding, and multiple information sources positively influenced adoption of post-harvest loss reduction technologies. The field survey also showed a 100% willingness of the farmers to adopt improved/modern technologies. The study recommended using PPP model to make these modern technologies and farm practices within the financial reach of farmers to mitigate post-harvest losses.

Cattle farming is an integral part of the livelihoods of farmers in Narok County. However, very few studies have been conducted to describe livestock production in different agroecosystems in Kenya. The objective of this study was to determine cattle production systems and characteristics under different agro-ecosystems. The study was conducted through the administration of semi-structured questionnaires to 817 farmers in three sublocations from Narok south sub-county. The main livestock production systems were pure pastoral, communal grazing and zero-grazing where indigenous cattle were the predominant breed kept (86.8%) with a few farmers keeping crossbreeds or exotic breeds. However, sheep (75.1%) goats (79.4%), chicken (68.6%) and donkeys (32.9%) were also kept. The mean lactation period for cattle was 9.5 months with average inter-calving interval of 14.1 months. More households (45.1%) grazed cattle within their own pastureland compared to pure pastoralism (12.5%), communal grazing (8.0%), zero grazing (0.9%), or combination (33.5%). Approximately 37.1% of the respondents herded their cattle, 13.1% were on free grazing, 36.6% both free grazing and herding whereas 13.2% used paddocks. The mean land area under pasture was estimated at 53.9 acres. The main source of drinking water was within the grazing field (63.6%) with 36.4% having had to take livestock elsewhere. Most households (85.7%) practicing mixed farming could easily access veterinary services compared to 57.2% and 55.1% in agro-pastoral and pure pastoral system respectively (p<0.0001). The main veterinary interventions were deworming, vaccination, and antibiotic administration. Most households (98.6%) had sprayed their livestock with 98.9% sourcing the products from agrovet outlets. More respondents (63.8%) in agro-pastoral compared to 61.5% and 49.7% from pastoral and mixed farming respectively were aware of East Coast Fever disease (p<0.0001). Cattle were principally fed on natural pasture either produced from owned or leased lands with farmers getting unequal access to veterinary services.

A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with gastrointestinal parasitism in dromedary camel calves in Isiolo County, Kenya.Data on farm-and calflevels were collected through semi-structured questionnaires.The calves were examined, and a faecal sample was collected per rectum for laboratory analysis.The gastrointestinal parasite eggs and oocysts were estimated using the faecal floatation and McMaster methods in the laboratory.Descriptive analysis was used to summarize the variables, and multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to explore the association between helminth infection and the farm-and calf-level risk factors.A total of 308 calves in 25 households were recruited for this study.The mean number of calves per herd, age and weight were 38, 7.3 months and 169 kg, respectively, while the age at weaning was about 11 months.The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitism was 42%, while that of nematodes and coccidia were 31 and 3.9%, respectively.In the first model, the factors that were significantly associated with nematode infections were total milk yield per day, calf age, and calf weight.In the second model, the factors that were significantly associated with Nematodirus species infection were the age of the calf, live body weight and average weaning age of the camel calves.The study concludes that gastrointestinal parasitism (especially nematodes) occurs in camel calves in Kenya.It is recommended that the pastoralists should be educated on the impact of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in camel calves, and the importance of strategic deworming.

Smallholder dairy farmers (SDF) in developing countries often have limited understanding on the importance of cow comfort. We conducted a randomized controlled trial with 124 cows on 114 Kenyan SDF to determine the status of cow comfort, to assess compliance to farm-specific cow comfort recommendations, and to evaluate the impacts of the farm-specific interventions on cow comfort. On the first farm visit, stall dimensions and characteristics (e.g. stall base hardness and hygiene) were measured and categorized as adequate, marginal or inadequate/absent based on cow size. Where measurements were not adequate, farm-specific cow comfort recommendations were provided in written and oral form to the randomly allocated intervention group of farms (n = 74). On the second farm visit two months later, the same measurements were taken, and percent compliance to the recommendations was evaluated. A discomfort index was arithmetically calculated based on the stall base hardness (scale was 1-3 for soft to hard) and hygiene (scale was 1-5 for clean to dirty). Multivariable linear regression models were used to determine specific associations with the discomfort index. On the first visit, the mean stall base hardness and stall hygiene scores were 1.7 and 2.3, respectively, for a mean discomfort index of 4.0. Intervention farmers were given 3.9 comfort recommendations, on average, and complied with 2.1 recommendations, significantly improving the discomfort index at visit two to 3.3. The overall compliance to the recommendations was 49.0%. In a final model, the interaction between intervention group and visit number was significantly associated with discomfort index, indicating that after adjusting for baseline discomfort indices, the intervention led to better cow comfort. Specifically, bedding type and neck rail positioning were significantly associated with discomfort index. We concluded that farmers can substantially improve cow comfort on SDF by providing recommendations to them. Farm advisors should include cow comfort recommendations to SDF.

The Nigerian government's policy on agriculture has supported productivity enhancements among smallholder farmers, yet tomato production is constrained by post-harvest losses leading to over 45 % (750,000 metric tons) loss. Various initiatives are constantly being introduced to make technologies and practices available to reduce these losses. This study was carried out to determine the level of awareness and perception of four technologies. A total of 420 tomato farmers were selected in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Awareness and perception were modelled using the Multivariate Probit Model. The results showed that one or more of the independent variables including cooperative affiliation (p<0.001, for awareness of Reusable Plastic Crate {RP} technique), frequency of extension visit (p<0.001, for awareness of RP), and farm area cultivated (p<0.05, for awareness of Refrigerated Truck {RT}/ Machine Drying {MD}) were significant. For perception, some of the independent variables explored and found significant included multiple sources of information for CS/RT, losses through transit/storage (P<0.01) and the number of technologies adopted (P<0.001) for cheapness; credit access (P<0.001) and farm area (P<0.001) for availability; marital status (P<0.01) and losses through storage (P<0.021) for labour saving perceptions. The awareness and perception of the tomato PHL reduction technologies do not provide common determinants. The study concluded that the communication channels such as Farmer to Farmer, Radio and extension agents (57.9%, 9.3%, 33% for RP, respectively), among others, influenced awareness of the new technologies among farmers. The study recommends the need to drive farmers’ awareness using suitable advocacy channels. A better understanding of constraints that influence farmers' perceptions is important while designing and rolling out technologies.

Background and Aim:The one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) adapt very well to arid and semi-arid (ASALs) environments and continue to thrive and produce milk even during severe droughts when cattle, sheep, and goats experience high mortalities. These attributes make the dromedaries very vital for the survival of pastoralists, especially in the ASALs of Africa. Mastitis is among the most important diseases of camels and can cause significant economic losses, thereby endangering the livelihoods of pastoralists. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence, risk factors, and antimicrobial sensitivity of mastitis-causing pathogens in lactating camels in Isiolo County, Kenya.Materials and Methods:This was a cross-sectional study conducted in July and August 2021. A questionnaire was administered to the camel keepers to capture data on herd-level factors. Lactating camels were then examined for any visible signs of clinical mastitis and as well as to capture data on other animal-level factors such as age, weight, and body condition score. A composite milk sample was collected aseptically from randomly selected camels in a herd. The samples were initially tested for somatic cell counts (SCC) using Somatos mini® automatic cell counter. Culture and sensitivity testing was then carried out on any milk sample that had SCC ≥ 200,000 cells/mL. The descriptive analysis was initially used to summarize the continuous and categorical farm and camel factors, while mixed regression models were used to explore the association between/across mastitis and the farm as well as camel-level factors.Results:A total of 210 lactating camels from 23 herds were selected and sampled in this study. The average age of camel keepers was 48.3 ± 16.3 years and they were involved in rearing camels for a mean of about 14.3 ± 8.6 years. The total number of camels in a herd ranged from 10 to 287, with the mean total herd milk production being 34.5 ± 24.9 L/day. The mean daily milk production per camel was 2.8 ± 1.7 L while the range for days in milk was between 21 and 787 days. The average age of camel first calving and the inter-calving interval was 56.3 ± 9.9 and 27.7 ± 9.9 months, respectively. The median parity of the dam was three and the body condition score was two. About 39.7% (83/210) of the sampled camels had clinical mastitis during the current lactation. The overall prevalence of mastitis (SCC ≥ 200,000 cells/mL) in camels was 17.6%. The main pathogens isolated were Streptococcus and Staphylococcus bacteria. Streptococcus isolates were mainly sensitive to ampicillin and resistant to cefaclor. All 18 Staphylococcus isolates were sensitive to tetracycline, while 12/18 isolates were resistant to ampicillin. The factors that were significantly associated with mastitis were the age of the respondent (p = 0.038), the number of years involved in camel rearing (p = 0.024), presence of clinical mastitis since calving (p = 0.039), body condition score (p = 0.040), and age of the dam at the time of examination (p = 0.072).Conclusion:Results from this study revealed that mastitis is an important condition among camels in the pastoral communities of Isiolo County, Kenya. Thus, pastoralists should continue to be aware of and trained on mastitis occurrence and its control in the pastoral ecosystem to reduce potential economic losses.

In Kenya, helminthosis and coccidia infections in cattle, are the second highest cause of death in zebu calves up to 12 months old, estimated at 12% mortality rate. The aim of our study was to investigate the factors associated with helminth and coccidia infection among zebu beef calves in Isiolo County Kenya. A cross-sectional study was conducted between November and December on 2020 in Isiolo North and South Constituencies. Garbatulla and Burat wards in Isiolo North and Kinna in Isiolo South were purposively selected due to high number of large cattle herds compared to other areas. A total of 411 calves from 34 herds aged between 3 weeks and 12 months were randomly selected for the study. Calf level and management and environmental data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires, observations and physically. Faecal samples were obtained from the rectum or immediately after defaecation for laboratory analysis located in Kinna Ward in Isiolo South Constituency. In the laboratory, faecal egg counts were estimated using the McMaster faecal floatation technique. Descriptive, univariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were carried out with outcome as parasites eggs or oocysts per gram of faecal sample. The factors associated with coccidia infections in the final multivariable logistic regression analysis for coccidia were: Location (Constituencies), availability of drinking water, lush pasture, floor condition, availability of extension services and herd size. In the multivariable logistic regression final model for strongyle infection, age of the calf, herd size, co-infestation with other parasites, and availability of extension services were significant. The results of this study indicated that prevalence of helminth and coccidia infections in calves is high and the calf, environmental and management factors were associated with such infections.

Background: There are many prevalence and risk factor studies of infectious diseases such Q fever done in Sub-Saharan Africa but in Kenya, there are limited studies on Coxiellosis. The disease affects animal productivity and the ability to support livelihoods. The under-diagnosis of the disease has proven a challenge for effective control and eradication, since the epidemiology of the disease is still not clearly understood both in the animal and human health systems due to limited availability of technical and financial capacity to allow for significant epidemiological studies. The aim of this study was to determine the sero-prevalence and risk factors of C. burnetii in cattle in the Mara region, Narok County of Kenya. This study will provide relevant data for veterinarians and healthcare professionals that can be used for designing strategies for managing Q fever. Ultimately, this will aid in demonstrating that Q fever should not be neglected and should be included while controlling other zoonotic infections using the One Health approach. Results: A total of 589 sera samples were collected from 390 herds in 5 different villages from 3 zones selected based on the livestock-wildlife interactions and land use patterns in Mara Ecosystem in 2019. The seroprevalence C. burnetii was 1.9%. Significant risk factor on univariate analysis at animal level was bull ownership {OR=4.8 (CI 0.4-16.2) P-value 0.016}, while at at the herd level the significant factors were: animals grazing in shared areas between villages {OR 2.3CI 1.0-5.0) P-value 0.046}, mixing of cattle in different herds {OR 0.4 CI 0.2-0.9 P-value 0.029}, bought livestock previous year {OR 10.1 CI 1.3-75.8 P-value 0.025}, bull ownership P-value 0.003, history of abortion in the herd { OR 0.3 CI 0.1-10.9 P-value 0.018} and communal grazing had a borderline significance of (OR=2.2 P-Value). At the multivariable analysis bull ownership was the only significant variable {OR 5.2 CI 1.5-18.4) P-value 0.010). Conclusion: The study confirmed the previous exposure of the cattle in Mara ecosystem to the Coxiella burnetii indicating the potential risk to human transmission and qualifying the need to have better veterinary and public health interventions.

A number of environmental and contagious factors have been associated with subclinical mastitis (SCM), which is a common and costly problem for smallholder dairy farmers (SDF). We conducted a cross-sectional study on 118 cows in their first two months post-calving on 109 SDF in Kenya. The study objective was to investigate the relationships among various cow and farm management parameters and SCM specific to SDF. The stall floor comfort level was assessed through knee impact and wetness tests, and cleanliness on the leg and udder were also scored. Various mastitis prevention measures were also assessed (e.g., milking protocols, and use of teat dip and dry cow therapy). Individual quarter SCM was assessed on each cow using California Mastitis Test (CMT). Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were fit to determine management factors associated with cow-level SCM. Farm-level, cow-level and quarter-level prevalence of SCM was 45.9% (50/109), 43.2% (51/118) and 21.9 % (103/471), respectively. The proportion of stalls scored as dirty was 33.1% while 49.1% of cows had dirty legs. Only 10.1% of farms were using either disinfectant teat dip or dry cow therapy (or both) to prevent mastitis. Low parity and poor stall hygiene were significantly associated with occurrence of SCM. At high daily milk yield, the probability of having SCM was higher in cows housed in a shed with a dirty versus clean alleyway, with no significant difference at low daily milk yield. From the study findings, we concluded that certain cow characteristics and comfort measures were associated with SCM and need to be incorporated in education plans for farmers in SDF.

Background and Aim:Camels have adaptive features to harsh climatic conditions, which make them a valued stable source of livelihood in arid lands. This study estimated the total bacterial and coliform counts (CCs), their associated factors in raw camel milk from the pastoral camel keepers, and the entire milk value chain in Isiolo County and Nairobi, Kenya. This study elucidates the bacterial load in camel milk and its potential risk. Moreover, this study provides recommendations on how to avert a human health hazard.Materials and Methods:This cross-sectional study targeted the camel pastoralists in Isiolo County, in the northern central part of Kenya. The study was conducted in July and August 2021. In addition, camel milk samples were collected along the value chain key points, including the producers, transporters, one bulker, and small traders in Isiolo town, and other retailers in Nairobi City. Eight camel herds were purposively selected and visited for a sample collection from pooled milking containers (10 mL each). In addition, milk was collected from pooled milk through the transporters, two milk bulkers, and several milk retailers in Isiolo town. Milk was further collected from retailers in Eastleigh town, Nairobi City. At each sampling point, 20 mL of milk sample was collected aseptically. The milk samples were assessed for total viable bacterial counts (TVBC) and CCs using the plate count and digital colony count, respectively.Results:A total of 76 respondents were selected and 213 milk samples were collected in this study. The respondents included the 1 (1.3%) bulker, 32 (42.1%) producers, 26 (34.2%) traders, and 17 (22.4%) transporters. Most respondents were male (62%), with most being over 40 years old. Overall, the TVBC had a mean of 2436835 ± 9276636 and a median of 3600. Furthermore, the multivariable multilevel mixed-effects linear regression model indicated that gender and practice of smoking milk-handling containers were positively and negatively associated with high counts of the natural logarithm of total viable bacteria, respectively. Of the milk samples evaluated for the CC, 10.3% (22/213) had counts greater than or equal to (≥) 100,000, where some also indicated extreme outliers of about 9.3 million.Conclusion:This study reports a low proportion of camel milk samples with high total viable bacterial and CCs. The material of the milk container and level of education interactively affected the total viable bacteria.

Background and Aim:Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) are important pathogens of cattle and pigs, respectively, and belong to the genus Pestivirus. As CSFV has been shown to infect cattle, it can create diagnostic challenges of BVDV results through possible cross-reactivity where cattle could be exposed to pigs and CSFV. This study aimed to determine the possible cross-reactivity of BVDV and CSFV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results for antigen (Ag) and antibody (Ab) among smallholder dairy cattle in Kenya.Materials and Methods:This was a cross-sectional study based on a single visit to farms to collect serum samples and other descriptive farm-level and animal-level information. Testing for BVDV Ag and Ab was conducted on serum samples from 320 dairy cows and heifers, with CSFV Ag and Ab testing conducted on a subset of 133 and 74 serum samples, respectively. CSFV testing was based on BVDV test results and the availability of enough sample volume from farms that kept pigs. The Ag and Ab tests utilized IDEXX ELISA for both BVDV and CSFV.Results:For the 74 samples with Ab tests for both viruses, 40 (54.0%) were BVDV Ab positive, while 63 (85.1%) were CSFV Ab positive. Of the 40 BVDV Ab positive samples, 36 cattle (90.0%) tested positive for CSFV Ab. However, of the 34 BVDV Ab negative samples, 27 (79.4%) were CSFV Ab test-positive. For the 133 samples with Ag tests for both viruses, 125 (94.0%) were BVDV Ag positive, while 2 (1.5%) samples were CSFV Ag positive. None of the eight BVDV Ag negative samples was positive for CSFV Ag and only two (1.6%) of the 125 BVDV Ag positive samples were positive for CSFV Ag.Conclusion:The results indicate either substantial cross-reactivity of the two Ab ELISA tests, or reactivity with some other protein in the samples that led to the positive Ab test results. There was only limited evidence for cross-reactivity of the two Ag ELISA tests. We recommend that Pestivirus genus cross-reactivity be considered when interpreting BVDV ELISA results in cattle, more for Ab than Ag tests. Further research is needed to clarify the levels of cross-reactivity between BVDV and other Pestivirus Ag and Ab tests from animals on mixed-species farms.

In Kenya, helminthosis and coccidiosis in cattle, is reported to be the second highest cause of death in zebu calves up to 12 months old, estimated at 12% mortality rate. The aim of our study was to investigate the prevalence of gastrointestinal helminth and coccidia infections among zebu calves in Isiolo County in Kenya. A cross-sectional study was conducted in between November and December, 2020 in Isiolo North and South Constituencies. Garbatulla and Burat Wards in Isiolo North and Kinna Ward in Isiolo South were purposively selected due to high number of large cattle herds compared to other areas. A total of 411 calves from 34 cattle herds aged between 3 weeks and 12 months were randomly selected for the study. Faecal samples were obtained from the rectum or immediately after defaecation for laboratory analysis, in a veterinary laboratory located in Kinna Ward in Isiolo south Constituency that is virtually meant for research. Faecal egg counts and coccidian oocyst were identified and estimated using the McMaster faecal floatation technique. The prevalence was determined by dividing positive number by the total number tested and the converted to percentage form. The overall prevalence of helminth and coccidia infections was estimated at 66.9% (275/411). Concurrent helminth and coccidia prevalence were slightly low, estimated at 16.5% (68/411). Coccidia infection was the most prevalent type of infection estimated at 45.7% (188/411) while the prevalence of helminths was 38.4% (158/411). Strongyle infection was predominant among other helminths detected with a prevalence of 29.4% (121/411) followed by Strongyloides 6.5% (27/411), Monezia 2.7% (4/411), Toxocara 1% (4/411) and Trichuris 0.2% (1/411). The results of this study indicated that prevalence of helminth and coccidia infections in calves is high dominated by strongyles and coccidia.

This study estimated the changes in economics and farmer perceptions towards calf welfare as a result of implementing low-cost calf housing enhancements and changes in calf management on Kenyan smallholder dairy farms.The trial involved 187 heifer calves from 150 farms allocated to either an intervention or control group.The interventions were improvements on the floor and roof of the calf housing, and training for the farmers on calf care.Animal-and farm-level characteristics were collected every two months over a 16-month period.Data gathered from questionnaires on the first and sixth visits were used to determine changes in calf management and farmer perceptions on calf welfare preand post-intervention.Partial budgeting was used to assess the additional costs and benefits associated with the intervention for heifer calves from birth to 15 months old.The net financial return of undertaking the housing and management improvements was positive at Ksh 6,594 (USD 65.94) per heifer, based on having a larger heifer at 15 months, reduced bedding and medical care costs, and lower risk of death.It is thus concluded that calf housing improvements and on-farm training on calf care are cost-effective and improve management and calf welfare perceptions of farmers.

This trial evaluated average daily gain (ADG) effects of heifer calves (< 1 year old) from affordable housing improvements to the roof and flooring on 150 randomly allocated smallholder dairy farms. During the 16-month data collection period, bimonthly farm visits were used to measure weight and other animal- and farm-level factors on the 187 study calves. Multivariable linear regression was used to model ln ADG and ADG during pre-weaning and post-weaning periods, respectively. Median pre-weaning and post-weaning ADGs were 0.307 (interquartile range (IQR): 0.227–0.398) and 0.487 (IQR: 0.354–0.675) kg/d, respectively. In the final pre-weaning model (p<0.050), factors positively associated with ln ADG were calf age at first acaricide application, and total number of calf pens, while factors negatively associated with ln ADG included calf mortality risk over the last 5 years and calf age at first ad lib access to water. In an interaction term, for calves from parity 3+ dams, ADG was lower when milk was fed twice/day than thrice/day, with no difference in calves of lower parity dams. In the final post-weaning model, housing improvements increased ADG by 5.6%. Other factors positively associated with post-weaning ADG were feeding of calf pellets, wheat bran, maize bran, and hay. Calf age at first introduction of concentrate and calf mortality risk over the last 5 years were negatively associated with ADG. In an interaction term, ADG was high when there were faecal coccidia oocysts and when calves had visual or physical contact with their dams, but low when faecal coccidia cysts were present, and these dam-calf connections were absent. In a second interaction term, ADG increased with more calf pens for female principal farmers, while remaining low for male principal farmers. In conclusion, while controlling for other factors of ADG, making affordable calf housing improvements enhanced ADG, particularly during the post-weaning period.

This field trial tested the hypothesis that providing Kenyan smallholder dairy farmers with training and resources can enhance cows’ cyclicity and conception using conventional or sexed semen. One hundred farmers were randomly selected and randomly allocated to five equal-sized intervention groups: 1) reproduction only; 2) nutrition only; 3) reproduction and nutrition; 4) education only (quasi-control); or 5) nothing (control). Reproductive interventions included provision of prostaglandin F2? (PG) and/or gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to induce estrus, and reproduction education. Nutrition interventions included provision of leguminous shrubs and nutrition education. At monthly visits over 17 months, farm and cattle data were collected, and open cattle underwent physical and reproductive exams to determine readiness for farmer decisions on sexed semen utilization. Cox proportional hazards modeling (CoxPH) was used to determine if intervention group was significantly associated with risk of conception. The final dataset included 191 cows and 26 heifers. Lowest and highest heat submission percentages were 8.5% and 35.5% in the control and reproduction groups, respectively. Conception percentages in cows and heifers were 44.0% and 54.5% for sexed semen and 72% and 79% for conventional semen, respectively. In the final multivariable CoxPH model, each unit increase in average body condition score was associated with 3.5 times higher risk of conception. Cattle that were inseminated following spontaneous heat had 1.8 times higher risk of conception over cows that were inseminated following a hormone-induced heat. In a significant interaction variable, when cows were supplemented with dairy meal in the last month of gestation, a higher risk of conception was achieved in cows on groups where leguminous shrubs were fed compared to groups where no leguminous shrubs were fed. This study concludes that focused effort on improving reproduction through education, hormone use and improved nutrition can improve heat submission and conception percentages on Kenyan smallholder dairy farms.

Abstract Purpose: Delays in diagnosis and treatment of cancers in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs) attributable to provider and/or systemic factors are linked to poor patient outcomes. Pathology services are not available in most lower level facilities hence, there's delayed diagnosis and initiation of treatment for cancers. There is also limited availability of specialized pathology tests. Methods: International Cancer Institute (ICI), conducts joint clinics and cancer screening with partner counties where same-day screening and on-site biopsing is conducted after which samples for cytology, histology and/or histochemistry are sent for processing in the ICI diagnostics and research laboratory at a subsidized cost with a turn-around-time for results being 14 days or less. Results get discussed virtually by a multi-disciplinary team (MDT) of both ICI and the outreach site and positive results are singled out for further diagnostics like computerized tomography (CT) scan and blood work ups. Results: Between September and December 2020, a total of 146 samples for Cytology; 197 biopsy samples for histology and 66 samples for immunohistochemistry were shipped to the ICI Diagnostics and research laboratory from five ICI Outreach sites namely: Kisumu, Taita Taveta, Meru & Makueni counties and Sori Lakeside Hospital. In less than 28 days from date of screening, the MDT discussed positive results and gave recommendations; results were disseminated to outreach sites for patient counseling and drawing of treatment plans; and appropriate treatment was initiated at the outreach sites in established cancer clinics run jointly by ICI and the counties. The ICI Consultant Pathologist and Histotechnologist provide further technical support and consultation to the clinic team when necessary. Conclusion: Better patient outcomes are assured when there is reduced turn-around time from screening to diagnosis and initiation of treatment for cancers in LMICs. Accessibility of pathology services through strengthening of existing health systems can be achieved through multi-sectoral partnerships. Citation Format: Gloria Kitur, Emmah Achieng, George Gitau, Chite Asirwa. Enhancing Cancer Diagnostics through Provision of Pathology Support for Hospitals in Low and Middle-Income Countries: A Case of International Cancer Institute (ICI), Kenya [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Symposium on Global Cancer Research; Global Cancer Research and Control: Looking Back and Charting a Path Forward; 2021 Mar 10-11. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2021;30(7 Suppl):Abstract nr 37.

Little is known of the risk factors associated with occurrence of Neospora caninum and Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) infection in Kenya. This cross-sectional study hypothesized that there are significant biosecurity measures associated with N. caninum and BVDV infections on smallholder dairy farms in Kenya that could be adopted to reduce seroprevalence and impacts. From 158 randomly selected farms in Meru County, Kenya, 470 serum samples were collected from dairy cattle (over six months of age and unvaccinated for these two pathogens). Sera were analyzed for antibodies to N. caninum and antibodies and antigens to BVDV. Data on risk factors were obtained through face-to-face interviews with the farmers. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to identify significant risk factors associated with seropositivity for the pathogens. The apparent seroprevalence of N. caninum, BVDV antibody, BVDV antigen, and co-infection with N. caninum and BVDV antibody and/or antigen were 35.1%, 47.1%, 36.2% and 18.5%, respectively. Risk factors associated with N. caninum antibody included: introducing milking cows into the farm, lending of cattle between farms, farm dogs having access to bovine aborted fetuses, and dogs whelping in the farm compound, with an interaction between the last two variables. BVDV antigen was associated with cattle having contact with pigs, and an interaction between cattle age and whether farms introduced new calves onto farms, and cattle age and whether visiting dairy farmers have access to the cow shed. Cows had higher odds of having BVDV antibodies compared to heifers. Factors associated with co-infection included cow parity, direct contact between dairy cattle, dogs and goats, and introducing new milking cows into the farms. Antibody and antigen results may be partly a function of classical swine fever virus or border disease virus interactions. Farmer education on these biosecurity measures is recommended, along with introduction of BVDV vaccination.