Early adolescence is a crucial period for social and emotional development, with relationships with close friends shaping individual and social well-being. Today, these interactions occur both offline and online, requiring nuanced theoretical models to capture their complexities. Using a three-wave longitudinal, person-centered approach, this study aims to: (1) identify distinct social media use profiles based on specific online activities, (2) examine socio-motivational factors predicting profile membership, and (3) test the role of profile membership in the longitudinal stability of perceived quality of close friendship. A sample of 1211 Dutch adolescents (Mage = 13.1, SD = 0.80; 53.8 % males) participated in three waves of data collection between 2016 and 2018. Four profiles of social media users emerged (1 = Low users, 2 = High self-disclosing users; 3 = High self-oriented users, 4 = All-round users), each explained by different sociomotivational factors. In particular, a low quality of perceived close friendships at T1 increased the odds of being Low social media users, characterized by lower social media activity at T2. Furthermore, both Low and Allround social media users showed stable perceived friendship quality over time, maintaining consistently low and moderate-to-high levels, respectively. These findings highlight the foundational role of peer interaction in shaping online behaviors and social experiences. While social media can reinforce friendships, its benefits largely rely on pre-existing relationships. Adolescents with weaker friendships may struggle to use social media to build meaningful relationships, missing opportunities to enhance their connections and potentially further deepening social difficulties.

Although several psychological correlates of problematic social media use (PSMU) have been identified, less is known about social and emotional processes and responses occurring within digital contexts. Recent research with adolescents has defined socio-emotional e-competencies as an individual's ability to regulate their emotions online (emotional e-regulation) and maintain positive online relationships (social e-competency). Using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), this two-wave study examined whether socio-emotional e-competencies are associated to later PSMU via two different mechanisms: e-motions (expression and facilitating use of emotions online) and digital stress-operationalized as perceived pressure to be constantly available on social media (entrapment) and feelings of sadness after being ignored online (disappointment). Data were collected at two time-points, six months apart. At T1, 1,185 adolescents participated (59.3 % females; Mage = 15.97, SD = 1.43), and 1,096 adolescents participated at T2 (Mage = 15.93, SD = 1.40). Results of the SEM indicated that emotional e-regulation (T1) was negatively associated with e-motions and digital stress six months later, whereas social e-competency (T1) was positively associated with these variables at T2 and also showed a negative direct association with T2 PSMU. Both e-motions and digital stress were positively associated with PSMU at T2. Moreover, socio-emotional e-competencies (T1) were indirectly associated with T2 PSMU via both e-motions and digital stress. Overall, the findings suggest that while emotional e-regulation may function as a protective factor against PSMU, social e-competency may increase online emotional and relational engagement over time, indirectly heightening adolescents' vulnerability to PSMU through e-motions and digital stress.

Youth who experience bias-based harassment report more adverse functioning than those who report peer victimization not targeted at identity. Yet, there has been little research aimed at understanding how different forms of bias-based harassment influence well-being. The current study adds to the existing research through its comprehensive assessment of adolescents’ direct and witnessed bias-based harassment exposures and examination of how exposures are associated with mental health and grades. We also evaluated three protective factors (adult support at school, peer support, and school belonging) for their associations with functioning after taking into account bias-based harassment exposures. Participants were 7,402 high school adolescents in the Northeast (Mage= 15.41 years,SD= 1.08). Results revealed differential associations with mental health and grades based on bias-based harassment types and highlighted the importance of support and belonging.

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether moral disengagement and defender self-efficacy were related to defending, unconcerned bystanding, and guilty bystanding in school bullying among pre-adolescent students. In this study, 1168 pre-adolescent students from 74 upper elementary classrooms in 31 schools in Sweden completed a series of self-report scales. Through structural equation modeling, the study found that defending was positively associated with defender self-efficacy and negatively associated with moral disengagement. Unconcerned bystanding was negatively associated with defender self-efficacy and positively associated with moral disengagement. Finally, guilty bystanding was negatively associated with defender self-efficacy and moral disengagement.

Introduction Digital stress, resulting from expectations of online availability, can increase the risk of conflicts with friends. However, friendship conflict remains an underexplored indicator, particularly in association with stressful online experiences. This study aims to examine the association between digital stress and conflict levels overtime, considering the role of social media expectations.Method 1185 adolescents (59.3% f, Mage = 15.97 years, SD = 1.43) completed self-report measures at two timepoints, six months apart. A Structural Equation Model was employed to examine the longitudinal associations of social media expectations (i.e., friends' social media norms, friends' social media use, and perceived social media features) on friendship conflict, focusing on the mediating role of digital stress (i.e., entrapment and disappointment). Gender differences were explored.Results Perceived norms about social media use and unique features of social media (i.e., visualness) contributed to explain digital stress and, in turn, friendship conflict. Specifically, emotional responses to unmet expectations of availability on social media (i.e., disappointment) emerged as particularly relevant in explaining conflictual interactions, compared to the perceived pressure to be responsive to friends (i.e., entrapment). Males perceiving high availability of social media experience lower levels of entrapment, compared to females.Discussion Results from this study support the importance of considering social media as a context where to study friendship dynamics, as this knowledge can have several implications for promoting positive online experiences and preventing conflicts with friends.

Peer victimization has long been recognized as a significant issue among adolescents, with potentially harmful consequences for their psychological and social well-being. However, studies adopting a longitudinal, multilevel approach to explore the complexity of peer victimization dynamics are still lacking. This study aimed to test short-term longitudinal associations between peer victimization, internalizing problems, and satisfaction with friends over the course of 6 months. The sample included 1299 adolescents at T1 (48.3% female adolescents, Mage = 13.6 years) attending 67 school classes. Data were collected through self-report questionnaires administered at two time-points during the same school year. Multivariate multilevel analysis indicated that, at the individual level, T2 victimization was positively predicted by T1 internalizing problems (proportional reduction in variance [PRV] = 0.7%) and negatively by satisfaction with friends (PRV = 1.6%), whereas internalizing problems at T2 were predicted by peer victimization at T1 (PRV = 0.7%). Satisfaction with friends was negatively predicted by peer victimization (PRV = 3.6%). At the class level, T2 victimization was more likely in classrooms with lower levels of satisfaction with friends in the fall (PRV = 15%). Moreover, class-level ethnic diversity contributed to explain between-class variability in satisfaction with friends (PRV = 9.1%). These findings highlight the need for interventions that promote positive peer relationships and provide support for victimized adolescents to reduce internalizing problems. Additionally, they underscore the importance of fostering friendship quality as a protective factor against victimization.

The aim of this study was to examine whether collective moral disengagement and authoritative teaching at the classroom level, and student-teacher relationship quality at the individual level, predicted individual moral disengagement among pre-adolescent students 1 year later. In this short-term longitudinal study, 1,373 students from 108 classrooms answered a web-based questionnaire on tablets during school, once in fifth grade (T1) and once in sixth grade (T2). The results showed, after controlling for T1 moral disengagement, gender, and immigrant background, that students with better student-teacher relationship quality at T1 were more inclined to score lower on moral disengagement at T2, whereas students in classrooms with higher levels of collective moral disengagement at T1 were more inclined to score higher on moral disengagement at T2. In addition, both collective moral disengagement and authoritative teaching were found to moderate the associations between student-teacher relationship quality at T1 and moral disengagement at T2. These findings underscore the importance of fostering positive relationships between students and teachers, as well as minimizing collective moral disengagement in classrooms. These measures may prevent the potential escalation of moral disengagement in a negative direction.

The aim of the current study was twofold. The first aim was to examine whether callous-unemotional (CU) traits are directly related to moral disengagement and bullying perpetration as well as whether CU traits are indirectly related to bullying perpetration mediated by moral disengagement among adolescents. The second aim was to examine whether the three distinct dimensions of CU—callousness, uncaringness, and unemotionality—are directly related to moral disengagement and bullying perpetration, as well as whether they are indirectly related to bullying perpetration mediated by moral disengagement among adolescents. Self-report survey data from 706 adolescents ( Mage = 14.5) from 20 schools in Sweden were gathered and analyzed using structural equation modeling. The findings suggest that CU traits were positively and directly linked to bullying perpetration, but also indirectly mediated by moral disengagement. Similarly, callousness and uncaringness showed direct and indirect associations with bullying perpetration, whereas unemotionality was found to be only indirectly associated with bullying perpetration. Unemotionality had the weakest connection to moral disengagement and was not directly related to bullying perpetration, whereas callousness, in particular, but also uncaringness, had stronger connections to moral disengagement and bullying perpetration. In sum, the findings underscore the importance of explicitly integrating moral considerations into endeavors aimed at preventing school bullying among adolescents.

IntroductionDevelopmental researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the role of social media in adolescents’ experiences with their peers; however, to date, few studies have investigated the association between youngsters’ interactions with friends online and the perceived quality of their friendship relationships.MethodsThus, the current study aims to test the associations between three social media features, as perceived by adolescents, (i.e., availability, quantifiability, visualness) and the quality of adolescents’ friendships (in terms of perceived validation, intimacy, companionship), considering participants’ frequency of active social media use (i.e., self-oriented and other-oriented social media use), and the role of perceived group norms about social media use. Moreover, we tested potential differences across gender groups. Participants were 751 adolescents (Mage = 16.2, SD = 1.5).ResultsA SEM analysis showed that, among the perceived social media features, availability was positively associated with perceived friendship quality–both directly and indirectly. Furthermore, friends who participated more in other-oriented social media use reported being more satisfied with their friendship relationships and the results showed that peer influence processes were also active on social media.DiscussionTaken together, these results emphasize the study of social media as a social context for a better understanding of contemporary peer experiences during adolescence. Specifically, novel behaviors (e.g., liking or commenting on posts or content of peers), which characterize interactions between friends, may support relational functioning and well-being purposes in both the offline and online context.

IntroductionTeacher relational unfairness is a significant risk factor for students’ physical and mental well-being, especially during adolescence. However, school psychology research has not yet fully analyzed the links between teacher unfairness and important indicators of school experience and wellbeing, including peer aggression and school satisfaction. Even less evidence does exist with longitudinal, multilevel data.MethodsThe present study tested the prospective relations between Fall perceived teacher unfairness and Spring reactive and proactive aggression, and school satisfaction. At T1, participants were 1,299 students (48.3% girls, mean age = 13.6 years, SD = 1.1) attending 67 classrooms in Italian public schools, whereas 1,227 students participated in the second wave 6 months later.ResultsMultilevel regressions showed that, at the individual level, T1 perceived teacher unfairness positively predicted T2 reactive and proactive aggression, and negatively predicted school satisfaction. At the class-level, T1 class teacher unfairness explained between-class variability in T2 school satisfaction, but not variability in peer aggression.DiscussionThe findings expand current knowledge about the role of teacher unfairness with the classroom and have implications for interventions at school.

The overall objective of this study was to investigate the longitudinal association between diffusion of responsibility and pro-aggressive bystander behavior across three time points in upper elementary education. This three-wave longitudinal study included 1905 Swedish students who completed a questionnaire in at least one of the three waves: the fourth ( M age = 10.56), fifth ( M age = 11.55), and/or sixth grades ( M age = 12.58). Both traditional and random intercept cross-lagged panel models revealed a reciprocal relationship between pro-aggressive bystanding and diffusion of responsibility from the fourth to fifth grades, whereas the only significant cross-lagged path from the fifth to sixth grades was from pro-aggression to diffusion of responsibility in the traditional cross-lagged panel model. Thus, this study provides evidence for bidirectional longitudinal associations between diffusion of responsibility and pro-aggressive bystander behavior but did not support a full cross-lagged bidirectional model.

INTRODUCTION Social media are widely used by adolescents and young adults as a mean to maintain interpersonal relationships. Recent studies have found that young individuals with high levels of social anxiety feel more confident in communicating online. However, little is known about the role of perceived social media characteristics that could minimize the distress they experienced in face-to-face interactions. In this study, we rely on the tenets of the Transformation Framework, according to which social media, with its own features, may transform social relationships, including disclosing emotions and communicating with others online, in ways that may differ across individuals with or without specific vulnerability (e.g., social anxiety). Therefore, this cross-sectional study aims at examining the contribution of three specific social media features (i.e., asynchronicity, cue absence, and visualness) in explaining perceived breadth and depth of online communication, both directly and via e-motional processes (i.e., expression and facilitating use of e-motions), across groups of individuals with high versus low levels of social anxiety. METHODS Participants were 1046 Italian adolescents and young adults (61.4% females; Mage  = 17.9, SD = 3.23) who completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire between 2021 and 2022. Participants with very high scores on social anxiety (above the 90th percentile; socially anxious), were distinguished from all others (socially nonanxious) and a multigroup analysis (MGA) was run to compare the pattern of associations across the two different groups. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Results from the MGA showed significant differences between the two groups, partially confirming our hypotheses. Specifically, among socially anxious individuals, perceived cue absence was found to benefit perceived breadth and depth of online communication, and asynchronicity to enhance online emotional processes; conversely, these associations were negative in the group of socially nonanxious. Thus, these findings underly the contribution of social media in explaining youngsters' online experiences and support the potential beneficial role of some social media features for those more socially vulnerable.

Defending in bullying is a complex, yet important behavior that is likely associated with individual characteristics and group factors that operate simultaneously in the classroom micro system. However, little research has longitudinally analyzed the role of multiple promoting factors at both the individual and classroom level. Drawing on the social-ecological theory and social-cognitive theory, the present study examined the prospective associations between Fall defending self-efficacy, moral disengagement, moral identity, and moral distress and Spring defending behavior. Participants were 1163 adolescents (48.7% females; M-age = 13.6, SD = 1.1) attending 67 classrooms in Italian public schools. Defending showed moderate stability over one school year. At the individual level, multilevel analyses showed that T1 self-efficacy for all students, and moral distress for male students, positively predicted T2 defending. Moreover, high moral disengagement negatively predicted T2 defending only when students also reported high levels of moral identity. At the class-level, T1 class defending and class moral identity explained between-class variability in T2 defending. The findings have multiple implications for interventions that aim to increase defending behavior.

The overall aim of the present study was to examine whether moral disengagement and perceptions of antibullying class norms at individual level and at class level were associated with defending and passive bystanding in school bullying among school-age children. More specifically, we investigated the extent to which moral disengagement would contribute to explain defending and passive bystanding, after controlling for sex and perceptions of antibullying class norms at individual level and at class level. A total of 789 Swedish students (aged 10-14) from 40 middle school classes filled out a self-report survey. The findings revealed that girls and students who were less prone to morally disengage, and who perceived that their classmates endorsed more antibullying norms, were more likely to defend victimized peers. Students who were more inclined to morally disengage and perceive that classmates do not condemn bullying were more likely to act as passive bystanders. In addition, classes with higher levels of antibullying class norms were more likely to show higher rates of defending and lower rates of passive bystanding compared to the other classes. The findings suggest that schools and teachers need to develop educational strategies, methods, and efforts designed to make students aware of moral disengagement and to reduce their likelihood of morally disengaging in bullying situations. The present findings also point to the importance of teachers establishing class rules against bullying together with the students.

School closure and distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic have posed several challenges to children. Drawing upon the social-ecological framework, in this preliminary study, we tested what factors may help to explain students' difficulties with distance learning during COVID-19 lockdown, by analyzing family, school, and individual variables. The final sample included 183 Italian middle-school students (97 girls and 86 boys; Mage = 11 years, 9 months; SDage = 8 months; range: 11-14 years), who completed online surveys before the pandemic (November 2019) and during lockdown (May 2020). Key findings indicate that students who showed fewer difficulties with distance learning reported a more positive family climate, a better relationship with their teachers, and were more able to regulate their emotions in stressful situations. The educational and policy implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The last decade has seen a growing interest in understanding what role social media play in adolescent experiences, including friendship relationships. However, little is known about the associations of specific characteristics of social media and individual factors with friendship quality. This study was designed in line with the tenets of the so-called Transformation Framework (Nesi et al., 2018) with the aim of testing whether and how social media features, online social support, and online expressions of emotions play a role in adolescents' friendship quality. Participants were 744 Italian adolescents (64.5% females) with an average age of 15.9 years (SD = 1.31). First, a path analysis was conducted to test the hypothesized model on the whole sample of adolescents. Finally, two multi-group analyses (MGA) were conducted to analyze differences across gender groups (female vs. male) and group of social media users (problematic vs. non-problematic). Path analysis yielded a complex pattern of associations, in which different perceived social media features were significantly associated with different dimensions of friendship quality, both directly and indirectly via perceived online social support and the tendency to express e-motions on social media. Moreover, MGAs confirmed significant differences among both genders and social media users. The findings provide support for the importance of considering social media as a social context with its own characteristics for the study of adolescents' peer experiences, by taking into consideration that the hypothesized role of social media in supporting friendship relations during adolescence may depend on individual factors.

Peers are critical to defending and bystanding during episodes of bullying. This study investigates the extent to which friends can shape defending and bystanding as well as social cognitions associated with these two behaviors (i.e., perceptions of self-efficacy and moral distress). The study sample consisted of n = 1354 early and middle adolescents (7th‒10th grade; 81.4% Italian; 51.3% boys) in northern Italy. Employing a longitudinal social network analytic approach, using stochastic actor-oriented modeling, this study found that adolescents become more similar or stay similar to their friends in both behaviors and perceptions, with no clear indication that students select friends based on similar levels of behaviors or perceptions. The findings illustrate how defending and bystanding behaviors and related social cognitions are developed within friend (peer) networks.

School bullying is a complex social and relational phenomenon with severe consequences for those involved. Most children view bullying as wrong and recognize its harmful consequences; nevertheless, it continues to be a persistent problem within schools. Previous research has shown that children’s engagement in bullying perpetration can be influenced by multiple factors (e.g., different forms of cognitive distortions) and at different ecological levels (e.g., child, peer-group, school, and society). However, the complexity of school bullying warrants further investigation of the interplay between factors, at different levels. Grounded in social cognitive theory, which focuses on both cognitive factors and social processes, this study examined whether children’s bullying perpetration was associated with moral disengagement at the child level and with collective moral disengagement and prevalence of pro-bullying behavior at the classroom level. Cross-level interactions were also tested to examine the effects of classroom-level variables on the association between children’s tendency to morally disengage and bullying perpetration. The study’s analyses were based on cross-sectional self-report questionnaire data from 1,577 Swedish fifth-grade children from 105 classrooms (53.5% girls; Mage = 11.3, SD = 0.3). Multilevel modeling techniques were used to analyze the data. The results showed that bullying perpetration was positively associated with moral disengagement at the child level and with collective moral disengagement and pro-bullying behavior at the classroom level. Furthermore, the effect of individual moral disengagement on bullying was stronger for children in classrooms with higher levels of pro-bullying behaviors. These findings further support the argument that both moral processes and behaviors within classrooms, such as collective moral disengagement and pro-bullying behavior, need to be addressed in schools’ preventive work against bullying.

Chapter 5 Participant Roles in Bullying Gianluca Gini, Gianluca GiniSearch for more papers by this authorTiziana Pozzoli, Tiziana PozzoliSearch for more papers by this authorLyndsay Jenkins, Lyndsay JenkinsSearch for more papers by this authorMichelle Demaray, Michelle DemaraySearch for more papers by this author Gianluca Gini, Gianluca GiniSearch for more papers by this authorTiziana Pozzoli, Tiziana PozzoliSearch for more papers by this authorLyndsay Jenkins, Lyndsay JenkinsSearch for more papers by this authorMichelle Demaray, Michelle DemaraySearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Peter K. Smith, Peter K. SmithSearch for more papers by this authorJames O'Higgins Norman, James O'Higgins NormanSearch for more papers by this author First published: 15 March 2021 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482650.ch5 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Bullying: A Comprehensive and International Review of Research and Intervention RelatedInformation