The red fox Vulpes vulpes is one of the world’s most widespread carnivores. A key to its success has been its broad, opportunistic diet. The fox was introduced to Australia about 150 years ago, and within 30 years of its introduction was already recognised as a threat to livestock and native wildlife. We reviewed 85 fox diet studies (totalling 31693 samples) from throughout the species’ geographic range within Australia. Mammals were a major component of fox diet, being present in 70 ± 19% of samples across n = 160 locations. Invertebrates (38 ± 26% n = 130) and plant material (26 ± 25% n = 123) were also both staple foods and often the dominant food category recorded. Birds (13 ± 11% n = 137) and reptiles (10 ± 15% n = 132) were also commonly reported, while frogs were scarcely represented (1.6 ± 3.6% n = 111) in fox diet studies. Biogeographical differences reveal factors that likely determine prey availability. Diet composition varied with ecosystem, level of vegetation clearing and condition, and climate zone. Sample type (i.e. stomach versus scat samples) also significantly influenced reporting of diet composition. Livestock and frogs were underrepresented in records based on analysis of scats, whereas small mammals (native rodents, dasyurid marsupials, and bats) were more likely to be recorded in studies of scats than in studies of stomach contents. Diet varied seasonally, reflecting activity patterns of prey species and food availability. This synthesis also captures temporal shifts in fox diet over 70 years (1951–2020), as foxes have switched to consuming more native species in the wake of successful broadscale biological control of the invasive European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus . Diet analyses, such as those summarised in this review, capture the evidence required to motivate for greater control of foxes in Australia. This synthesis also highlights the importance of integrated pest species management to meet biodiversity conservation outcomes.

Context Invasive species management is often a source of contention; therefore, understanding human dimensions is viewed increasingly as critical for management success. Aims Using invasive Javan rusa deer (Cervus timorensis) in the Royal National Park (RNP), Sydney, as a case study, we sought to identify key dimensions of local public attitudes towards deer and associated management interventions, to identify the most divisive issues, and to assess the influence of experiences on attitudes. Methods We used a mixed-methods approach, using a questionnaire targeted at residents closest to the border of the RNP (n = 406, 30% response rate). The potential for conflict index (PCI2) was used to analyse 32 framing statements, generated through in-depth interviews with 18 key stakeholders from a range of stakeholder groups (e.g. conservation, hunting, animal welfare). We also tested for significant differences in attitudes between those who had or had not experienced deer impacts or received information on deer management. We conducted qualitative analysis of open comments to identify emergent themes and develop an attitudes framework. Key results We identified three overarching dimensions to local attitudes, namely, stakeholder, wildlife and management dimensions, each consisting of key themes and issues, forming the attitudes framework. The most divisive issues based on PCI2 analysis related to deer remaining in the park (PCI2 = 0.626), the heritage value of deer (PCI2 = 0.626), the need to remove deer (PCI2 = 0.531) and the need to kill non-natives in national parks (PCI2 = 0.535). Experience of deer–vehicle collisions and property damage were associated with significantly more negative attitudes towards deer and non-native species and more trust in ecological evidence (P < 0.001), whereas positive experience of deer had the opposite effect (P < 0.001). These experiences were also associated with attitudes towards aerial shooting (P < 0.05) but not hunting. Receiving information improved trust in ecological evidence and decreased belief in heritage value of deer (P < 0.05). Conclusions Attitudes of the local public were varied and complex; however, a mixed-methods bottom-up approach allowed us to identify specific key issues of divisiveness and make management recommendations. Implications The framework and analysis have the potential to facilitate conflict mitigation and develop invasive species management strategies that are inclusive of the local community.

Gonçalves et al. [ [1] Gonçalves J. Marks C.A. Obendorf D. Amorim A. Pereira A.A.F. The risks of using “species-specific” PCR assays in wildlife research: the case of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) identification in Tasmania. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2014; : e1-e3 PubMed Google Scholar ] report an examination of the PCR-based species identification test used to detect foxes from faecal material in the ongoing fox eradication programme in Tasmania. The authors rightly point out that poor design in screening methods may lead to false negative or false positive results and they sought to “better evaluate the specificity of the putatively fox-specific pair of PCR primers” as reported in Berry et al. [ [2] Berry O. Sarre S.D. Farrington L. Aitken N. Faecal DNA detection of invasive species: the case of feral foxes in Tasmania. Wildl. Res. 2007; 34: 1-7 Crossref Scopus (47) Google Scholar ] and applied by Sarre et al. [ [3] Sarre S.D. MacDonald A.J. Barclay C. Saunders G.R. Ramsey D.S.L. Foxes are now widespread in Tasmania: DNA detection defines the distribution of this rare but invasive carnivore. J. Appl. Ecol. 2013; 50: 459-468 Crossref Scopus (43) Google Scholar ]. We welcome the scrutiny of the test as DNA-based tests are being used more frequently in wildlife detection [ [4] Rodgers T.W. Janecka J.E. Applications and techniques for non-invasive faecal genetics research in felid conservation. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 2013; 59: 1-16 Crossref Scopus (59) Google Scholar ] and yet estimation of test specificity and sensitivity is rarely attempted. Unfortunately, Gonçalves et al. [ [1] Gonçalves J. Marks C.A. Obendorf D. Amorim A. Pereira A.A.F. The risks of using “species-specific” PCR assays in wildlife research: the case of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) identification in Tasmania. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2014; : e1-e3 PubMed Google Scholar ] have undertaken an analysis of an incomplete imitation of the test we applied. In doing so, they reach conclusions that do not apply to the test as it is conducted in practice nor do they actually estimate test specificity. Taken at face value, the findings by Gonçalves et al. [ [1] Gonçalves J. Marks C.A. Obendorf D. Amorim A. Pereira A.A.F. The risks of using “species-specific” PCR assays in wildlife research: the case of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) identification in Tasmania. Forensic Sci. Int. Genet. 2014; : e1-e3 PubMed Google Scholar ] could lead to erroneous interpretations, as was the case in a recent publication in which their findings were cited as support for claims of a high rate of false positives in the detection of Tasmanian foxes [ [5] Marks C.A. Obendorf D. Pereira F. Edwards I. Hall G.P. The dispersion and detection patterns of mtDNA assigned red fox Vulpes vulpes scats in Tasmania are anomalous. J. Appl. Ecol. 2014; : 1033-1040 Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar ].

Wild canids are widespread across most of mainland Australia. They can have major impacts on livestock production and biodiversity values and often necessitate active management. The impacts of free-ranging dogs and foxes should be managed concurrently, as there is often substantial overlap in their impacts and because most available control methods do not discriminate between the two species. Effective management of the impacts of wild canids requires a strategic approach that is driven by participants and based on specific local issues and available knowledge. Strategic management programs, as undertaken, are a form of adaptive management, in which participants gain knowledge about the problems they are addressing by conducting quasi-experiments. These examine the effects of management actions on clearly defined objectives. Importantly, it is the specific local impacts of wild canids that define the management objectives in these approaches, not simply the numbers of animals. Adaptive management can be used to suppress or enhance populations of wild canids depending on the management objectives; that is, mitigation of damage to livestock and biodiversity, or conservation of dingoes. This chapter discusses a strategic approach to managing the impacts of wild canids. The nature of those impacts, including new density:damage functions, and the specific tools and methods that are available to counter them are also discussed.

Feral or free-ranging pigs have been a problem in Australia since the first years of European settlement, and they now occur in a wide range of habitat types throughout much of the continent. Feral pigs impact environmental, agricultural, and cultural resources, but they can also have commercial value from harvesting and recreational or subsistence hunting. It has been difficult to quantify many of the adverse impacts of feral pigs. Consequently, most management programs aim to mitigate actual, potential, or perceived impacts that have been inferred from observational studies and anecdotes, untested retroductive hypotheses, or observations generated from outside of Australia. Lethal control to reduce population density is the most common form of management, and it is often applied as a form of insurance, rather than to mitigate specific, measurable impacts. We suggest that future management programs should aim to quantify the effects of management actions on pig populations and the vulnerable resources that are the basis of real management objectives. There are important ethical and practical reasons for this approach, which should in turn enhance the efficiency and efficacy of management programs and help to ensure continued public and government support for ongoing mitigation of the feral pig problem.

Globally, wild or feral pigs Sus scrofa are a widespread and important pest. Mitigation of their impacts requires a sound understanding of those impacts and the benefits and limitations of different management approaches. Here, we review published and unpublished studies to provide a synopsis of contemporary understanding of wild pig impacts and management in Australia, and to identify important shortcomings. Wild pigs can have important impacts on biodiversity values, ecosystem functioning and agricultural production. However, many of these impacts remain poorly described, and therefore, difficult to manage effectively. Many impacts are highly variable, and innovative experimental and analytical approaches may be necessary to elucidate them. Most contemporary management programmes use lethal techniques to attempt to reduce pig densities, but it is often unclear how effective they are at reducing damage. We conclude that greater integration of experimental approaches into wild pig management programmes is necessary to improve our understanding of wild pig impacts, and our ability to manage those impacts effectively and efficiently.

Wild E uropean rabbits are serious agricultural and environmental pests in A ustralia; myxoma virus and rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus have been used as biocontrol agents to reduce impacts. We review the literature on changes in rabbit numbers together with associated reports on the economic benefits from controlling rabbits on agricultural production. By using loss–expenditure frontier models in with and without biocontrol scenarios, it is conservatively estimated that biological control of rabbits produced a benefit of A $70 billion (2011 A $ terms) for agricultural industries over the last 60 years. The consequences for ongoing rabbit control and research investment are discussed.

In some environments, red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are major pests of agricultural systems. The main methods of controlling foxes rely on poison baiting, den fumigation and den destruction. There are concerns that ongoing use of poisons and fumigants may become unacceptable on the grounds of humaneness. Additional control options that are humane and effective need to be investigated. In this study we developed models to examine the efficacy of using contraceptive agents as an alternative method of control for fox populations. The models simulated the dynamics of structured (by age and sex) fox populations. The models were then used to identify the level of infertility required to achieve target levels of control, the need for ongoing maintenance, and the benefits of an integrated pest management strategy that included lethal control. The models indicated that an annual control campaign using baits that sterilised female foxes would reduce mean red fox population density by about 30%. An annual campaign of poisoning (using the same effort as the sterilisation campaign) would reduce mean fox density by about 80%. Payoff, in terms of reduced fox density, indicated that for any given bait density the payoff for poison baits was generally three to four times greater than for contraceptive baits. Additionally, integrated control-culling and fertility control-offered no advantage over culling only. For foxes, contraception delivered via bait is unlikely to provide a useful alternative to poisoning. Crown Copyright (C) 2013 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Stakeholders are increasingly involved in species conservation. We sought to understand what features of a participatory conservation program are associated with its ecological and social outcomes. We conducted a case study of the management of invasive vertebrates in Australia. Invasive vertebrates are a substantial threat to Australia's native species, and stakeholder participation in their management is often necessary for their control. First, we identified potential influences on the ecological and social outcomes of species conservation programs from the literature. We used this information to devise an interview questionnaire, which we administered to managers of 34 participatory invasive-vertebrate programs. Effects of invasive species were related to program initiator (agency or citizen), reasons for use of a participatory approach, and stakeholder composition. Program initiator was also related to the participation methods used, level of governance (i.e., governed by an agency or citizens), changes in stakeholder interactions, and changes in abundance of invasive species. Ecological and social outcomes were related to changes in abundance of invasive species and stakeholder satisfaction. We identified relations between changes in the number of participants, stakeholder satisfaction, and occurrence of conflict. Potential ways to achieve ecological and social goals include provision of governmental support (e.g., funding) to stakeholders and minimization of gaps in representation of stakeholder groups or individuals to, for example, increase conflict mitigation. Our findings provide guidance for increasing the probability of achieving ecological and social objectives in management of invasive vertebrates and may be applicable to other participatory conservation programs.

Summary Invasive vertebrate species are a world‐wide threat to biodiversity and agricultural production. The presence of foxes, one of the most damaging invasive vertebrates introduced to Australia, has now been confirmed in the island state of Tasmania, placing at risk many species of native vertebrates and substantial agricultural industry. Effective eradication of such a rare but elusive carnivore requires robust strategies informed by novel but systematic detection. We combine DNA detection approaches for trace samples with systematic stratified and opportunistic surveys of carnivore scats to estimate the current distribution of foxes in Tasmania. We use that DNA evidence and other hard evidence provided by carcasses and other material to build a predictive model of fox habitat suitability for all of Tasmania. We demonstrate that this destructive species is widespread in northern and eastern Tasmania but has not yet reached the limits of its range. The widespread nature of this distribution reveals that targeting fox activity hotspots only for eradication is unlikely to be successful and that a strategic and statewide approach is required. Our habitat suitability model can provide a basis for prioritizing areas for fox management. Synthesis and applications. Our approach highlights the importance of early and pre‐emptive surveys of recently established, and therefore rare, invasive species and the necessity of providing a sound and defensible approach to determining the distribution of the invasive species. This approach provides a template for the systematic detection of rare cryptic carnivores.

Principles contained in the 1993 publication "Managing Vertebrate Pests: Principles & Strategies" were developed during a review of past and current pest management practices. They were used to guide the development of a series of management guidelines for our major vertebrate pests – feral pigs, house mice, European rabbits, red fox, feral pigs, feral horses, wild dogs, and carp. The principles have been constantly refined through subsequent on ground experience in working with stakeholders to implement best practice management programs for pest animals. In this paper, we present what we now consider the seven principles that underpin best practice management of pest animals. They are: 1. A pest is human construct. 2. All key stakeholders need to be actively engaged and consulted. 3. Rarely can pests be eradicated. 4. Most pest management needs to focus on the outcome, reduction in damage, not just killing pests. 5. A whole-system approach is required for managing pest damage. 6. Most pest management occurs in ecosystems in which our knowledge is imperfect. 7. An effective monitoring and evaluation strategy is essential for all management interventions. Together, the principles comprise the strategic approach to pest management. We explain the rationale behind these principles and illustrate them with examples.

Historically, shooting has been a popular method for controlling foxes in Australia, but past research has shown it to be an ineffective method for significantly reducing fox population numbers. These past studies investigated shooting when conducted in isolated, one-off programmes. In more recent years large, coordinated group fox management programmes has become popular in both agricultural and conservation areas. These landscape scale programmes give more chance of long-term respite from predation damage by slowing down the immigration rates of foxes into the culled area. Studies have been conducted investigating the effectiveness of large-scale group fox management programmes that primarily used 1080 baiting as the method of control to protect vulnerable livestock and small animal. This study investigated the potential of a large-scale group programme that used shooting as the main form of control to reduce the impact of fox predation.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation impacts on the populations of many preferred species throughout its range and so is the target of continuous control programs. Research has shown that effective long-term control of this pest requires a critical mass of land managers in art area to participate, but under current legislation fox management is not mandatory on private lands in NSW, and hence participation in management programs is voluntary. The declaration of an animal as a pest under the Rural Lands Protection Act 1998 places an obligation on land managers to implement fox-management programs. Three-quarters of land managers surveyed thought the fox should be a declared pest in NSW. We investigated the impact that the introduction of such legislation would have on land managers and the government enforcement agency in a small area of rural NSW Reasons for and against the introduction of legislation are discussed, along with alternate solutions to improve regional fox management programs across Australia.

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) impact on populations of many prey species in Australia, and so are the targets of widespread management programs. In this study we monitored fox management programs already operating across 4.5 million hectares of regional New South Wales (NSW) to compare the impact of varying fox baiting effort on the survival of lambs as a major prey species. The spatial coverage and frequency of fox baiting were both correlated with lamb survival. Lamb survival was higher in areas where fox baiting was done twice a year, in autumn and late winter/spring. Properties that had near neighbours participating in group fox baiting programs had higher survival of lambs than properties that did not. These results support the development of landscape-scale fox management programs, incorporating a high level of group participation to reduce the impact on vulnerable species.

Context. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation has an impact on populations of many species throughout its range worldwide, and as such, the red fox is the target of control programs.Aims. We investigated the potential for participatory landscape management to reduce the impact of fox predation on a major prey species, lambs.Methods. The present study monitored fox-management programs already operating across 4.5 million hectares of regional New South Wales to compare the impact of varying (frequency and spatial coverage) control effort on lamb survival.Key results. The frequency and timing of fox control was correlated with lamb survival. Lamb survival was higher in areas where fox baiting was carried out twice a year, in autumn and late winter/spring. Spatial coverage of the control program was also positively correlated with lamb survival. Properties that had near neighbours (up to 2.5 km away) participating in group fox-control programs had higher survival of lambs than properties that did not.Conclusions. These results support the development of a high level of group participation in fox-control programs that considers both spatial extent and frequency of baiting programs. They also support a movement away from the reactionary, short-term practice of baiting small areas to protect vulnerable prey.Implications. Coordinated group-baiting programs are likely to deliver improved lamb survival and should be promoted in areas where ongoing control programs for foxes are necessary.

The successful introduction of the red fox Vulpes vulpes into Australia in the 1870s has had dramatic and deleterious impacts on both native fauna and agricultural production. Historical accounts detail how the arrival of foxes in many areas coincided with the local demise of native fauna. Recent analyses suggest that native fauna can be successfully reintroduced to their former ranges only if foxes have been controlled, and several replicated removal experiments have confirmed that foxes are the major agents of extirpation of native fauna. Predation is the primary cause of losses, but competition and transmission of disease may be important for some species.In agricultural landscapes, fox predation on lambs can cause losses of 1-30%; variation is due to flock size, health and management, as well as differences in the timing and duration of lambing and the density of foxes.Fox control measures include trapping, shooting, den fumigation and exclusion fencing; baiting using the toxin 1080 is the most commonly employed method. Depending on the baiting strategy, habitat and area covered, baiting can reduce fox activity by 50-97%. We review patterns of baiting in a large sheep-grazing region in central New South Wales, and propose guidelines to increase landholder awareness of baiting strategies, to concentrate and coordinate bait use, and to maximize the cost-effectiveness of baiting programs.The variable reduction in fox density within the baited area, together with the ability of the fox to recolonize rapidly, suggest that current baiting practices in eastern Australia are often ineffective, and that reforms are required. These might include increasing landholder awareness and involvement in group control programs, and the use of more efficient broadscale techniques, such as aerial baiting.

Vertebrate pests cost Australia at least $1 billion annually in lost agricultural production and environmental damage. The spectacular success of myxomatosis in the 1950s and more recently, rabbit hemorrhagic disease, in the biological control of European rabbits has led to ongoing research into similar solutions for other vertebrate pests. There are significant barriers to the successful employment of biological control options including the obvious technological ones, such as host-specificity, as well as the investment required, public concerns and regulatory requirements. The role of biological control in vertebrate pest management and the attempts to develop such strategies in Australia is reviewed with emphasis on species specific case studies for rabbits, cane toads and carp, and the generic approaches of immunocontraception and daughterless genes.