Freshwater scarcity is the principal barrier to inland green hydrogen, particularly where hydrogen competes with irrigated agriculture for regulated water supplies. This study quantifies how the El Ni & ntilde;o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) alters the relative water value of hydrogen and cotton in the Gwydir catchment of the Murray-Darling Basin. An integrated framework couples ENSO-conditioned climatic ensembles with a Monte Carlo techno-economic model linking solar PV generation, low-temperature multi-effect distillation (LT-MED), and alkaline electrolysis, alongside a cotton profit model and the Basin's water-rights system. The framework evaluates two water-procurement pathways: temporary allocation trades and permanent entitlements. ENSO strongly alters outcomes under both mechanisms. El Ni & ntilde;o increases solar irradiance and suppresses cotton returns, reducing median Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) to 4.99 USD kg(-)& sup1; and system breakeven price to similar to 4.7 USD kg(-)& sup1;. La Ni & ntilde;a suppresses irradiance and elevates cotton profitability, increasing LCOH to 7.08 USD kg(-)& sup1; and raising agricultural water value by 25-40%. At 5.5 USD kg(-)& sup1; hydrogen price, reallocating 1% of irrigation water gains total system value by similar to 6600 USD under El Ni & ntilde;o but loses similar to 26,000 USD under La Ni & ntilde;a. A 10 MW green H2 facility employing LT-MED is assumed to require similar to 13 L net make-up H2O kg(-)& sup1; H-2, equivalent < 0.1% of cotton irrigation water use in the Gwydir catchment. In this context, green hydrogen represents a potential low-carbon substitute for fossil fuels used in inland agricultural regions. Findings demonstrate that inland hydrogen feasibility is governed by climate-conditioned economic scarcity within the regulated water-rights system, rather than physical water availability.

Solar desalination leverages renewable energy to advance SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), addressing energy consumption and water scarcity challenges. However, collocating large-scale concentrated solar power (CSP) with multi-effect distillation (MED) necessitates balancing resource demands such as climate, market dynamics, land topography, water availability, infrastructure, land use, and increased frequency of disaster risk due to global warming. This work develops an open-source multidimensional tool that integrates Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data, the System Advisor Model (SAM), an in-house techno-economic model, and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) to assess site feasibility at resolutions from 0.5 to 50 km. Simulations under current climate conditions identified 61 countries with suitable locations for CSP-MED plants, with 67.3% of the sites located in Australia, the United States, Mexico, South Africa, Egypt, Spain, and Namibia, where typical payback periods are 15-21 years. Optimal sites are characterised by direct normal irradiance (DNI) greater than 5 kWh/m2/day, moderate elevation, and limited distance to seawater, thereby avoiding high-altitude and far-inland locations. Dynamic simulations under different carbon emissions scenarios (low, medium, and high) for 2030 and 2050 demonstrate that climate change will only minimally impact the feasibility of CSP-MED processes, with payback periods increasing by a maximum of 6 months under high carbon emission scenarios. Overall, it is expected that the developed tool can be used to assist with national and state/provincial-level strategic planning for deploying large-scale solar-desalination projects.

The Impact of climate change on solar-thermal power and desalination infrastructure was evaluated for 23 water-stressed coastal cities using projections from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) for both moderate and high emission scenarios through to 2099. Using costs as a proxy measure of impact, the study assessed future changes in solar radiation, temperature, wind speed, seawater temperature, and salinity, combined with multi-criteria geospatial screening to identify suitable coastal sites, and applied a techno-economic model with SAM and a numerical MED framework. The results indicate that cities such as Beirut, Biob & iacute;o, and Valpara & iacute;so show significant improvements in future feasibility, with projected increases in solar radiation of up to 9.9%, resulting in levelized cost of electricity reductions of over 1.2 USD cent/kWh. In contrast, cities like Aden and Dubai face declines in DNI of up to 4.2%, with corresponding similar to 6% increases in levelized cost of electricity, highlighting the investment risk under high-emission scenarios. In all climate scenarios/locations, solar thermal desalination system was demonstrated as a sustainable source of electricity and water with high carbon reduction potential. For example, in Jeddah under the SSP2-4.5 near-future scenario, deploying a system with an annual desalination capacity of 3.28 & times; 10(6) m(3) results in 1.72 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year, compared to 6,630 tonnes and 20,800 tonnes annually for conventional reverse osmosis membrane and multi-effect distillation systems, respectively. Overall, it is critical to consider the effect of future climates on the feasibility of solar driven thermal desalination to unlock solar electricity and freshwater for densely populated coastal cities.

Oxidation is a common water treatment operation. Yet, conventional methods face challenges including inefficiency for wide range of pollutants, unsustainability, and high cost. Non-thermal plasma is a promising novel oxidation method with considerable environmental and economic benefits. However, its efficiency is highly dependent on the way the plasma is discharged, with recent research efforts targeting bubble-based delivery methods. Introducing gaseous plasma species through bubbles is proposed to be an effective way to improve mass transfer and lengthen the residence time of reactive species generated inside the liquid solution, thus enhancing efficiency. In this review, different discharge types are compared in the context of water treatment, confirming that plasma bubble discharge methods are the most effective for delivering reactive species as oxidants. The various factors influencing the efficiency of reactive species generation and target pollutant removal efficiency are explored, highlighting the intercorrelation between some factors and variability in the effects depending on the characteristics of target molecules and background matrixes. Furthermore, while several solution properties and bubble size (in macro scale) have been shown to influence plasma oxidation efficiency, there is a lack of literature on the influence of salt type, pH, bubble size (in micro and nano scale), internal pressure, and plasma bubble generation methods on the reactive species generation and pollutant degradation when using plasma bubbles on different types of pollutants, indicating further study in these areas is warranted. Finally, mechanisms and physiochemical interactions associated with plasma bubble delivery are discussed, illustrating the production of •OH at the bubble-water interface and the importance of minimizing gas volume and thickening the liquid layer around bubbles to enhance reactive species generation and diffusion.

Background/Objectives: High sodium consumption increases the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Although food remains the primary source of intake, elevated sodium levels in drinking water can further contribute to excessive intake, particularly in populations already exceeding recommendations. This review examines the extent to which national drinking water standards account for sodium-related health risks and aims to inform discussion on the need for enforceable, health-based sodium limits. Methods: National standards for unbottled drinking water in 197 countries were searched for using the WHO 2021 review of drinking water guidelines, the FAOLEX database, and targeted internet and AI searches. For each country, data were extracted for the document name, year, regulatory body, regulation type, sodium limit (if stated), and rationale. Socio-geographic data were sourced from World Bank Open Data. A descriptive analysis was conducted using Microsoft Excel. Results: Standards were identified for 164 countries. Of these, 20% (n = 32), representing 30% of the global population, had no sodium limit. Among the 132 countries with a sodium limit, 92% (n = 121) adopted the WHO’s palatability-based guideline of 200 mg/L. Upper limits ranged from 50 to 400 mg/L. Only twelve countries (9%) cited health as a rationale. Three countries—Australia, Canada, and the United States—provided a separate recommendation for at-risk populations to consume water with sodium levels below 20 mg/L. Conclusions: Globally, drinking water standards give inadequate attention to sodium’s health risks. Most either lack sodium limits or rely on palatability thresholds that are too high to protect health. Updating national and international standards to reflect current evidence is essential to support sodium reduction efforts. Health-based sodium limits would empower communities to better advocate for safe water. Amid rising water salinity, such reforms must be part of a broader global strategy to ensure universal and equitable access to safe, affordable drinking water as a basic human right.

Membrane characteristics can exacerbate the prevailing challenges associated with membrane fouling in industry. However, the combined impact of deliberate membrane modifications and the unavoidable effects of chemical ageing on fouling behaviour is still not well understood. In this study, three polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) ultrafiltration (UF) membranes with different pore size and surface roughness were selected and subject to chemical ageing with 5000 ppm sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) at pH 10.5, selected to simulate accelerated ageing conditions. The impact of NaOCl on membrane characteristics was assessed for exposure times from 1.2 x 10(5) to 25.2 x 10(5) ppm center dot h using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, contact angle, and clean water resistance analysis. The fouling behaviour of each pristine and aged membrane was compared using 10 mg C center dot L-1 dissolved organic carbon algal protein feed containing 18 % biopolymeric compounds. The membrane with intermediate pore size presented lower overall filtration resistance compared to the membrane with smaller pores that developed rapid foulant cake layers. It also displayed less susceptibility to fouling via pore blocking mechanisms compared to membranes with larger pores where greater surface area available in pore walls leads to higher foulant adhesion.

OBJECTIVE:To measure current levels and experiences of food and water security in Walgett to guide a community-led program and to provide a baseline measure. DESIGN:A community-led cross-sectional survey conducted in April 2022 by trained local researchers. SETTING:Walgett, a regional town in NSW, Australia. PARTICIPANTS:A total of 251 Aboriginal adults. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURED:Food and water security levels and experiences were measured using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Water InSecurity Experiences (HWISE) Scale. The relationship between food and water insecurity was determined through linear regression analysis. RESULTS:Almost half of the respondents experienced food insecurity (46%) or water insecurity (44%) in the last 12 months. Most participants attributed food insecurity to difficulties with food affordability (71%) and availability (63%). More than four in five participants reported relying on purchased or donated bottled water due to main water source interruption (83%) or quality concerns (86%). Water insecurity was associated with food insecurity; HFIAS score increased by 0.43 points for every point higher on the HWISE scale. CONCLUSIONS:This study is the first to measure levels and experiences of food and water security in an Aboriginal community in Australia using validated tools. The results highlight the interconnectedness of food and water insecurity and provide evidence of levels far higher than Australian national level estimates and comparable to low- and middle-income countries. A holistic government response alongside community-led efforts are needed to increasefood and water security to improve health and well-being in remote Aboriginal communities.

Hydrogen is expected to play a critical role in future energy systems, projected to have an annual demand of 401-660 Mt by 2050. With large-scale green hydrogen projects advancing in water-scarce regions like Australia, Chile, and the Middle East and North Africa, understanding water requirements for large-scale green hydrogen production is crucial. Meeting this future hydrogen demand will necessitate 4010 to 6600 GL of demineralised water annually for electrolyser feedwater if dry cooling is employed, or an additional 6015 to 19,800 GL for cooling water per year if evaporative cooling is employed. Using International Panel of Climate Change 2050 climate projections, this work evaluated the techno-economic implications of dry vs. evaporative cooling for large-scale electrolyser facilities under anticipated higher ambient temperatures. The study quantifies water demands, costs, and potential operational constraints, showing that evaporative cooling is up to 8 times cheaper to implement than dry cooling, meaning that evaporative cooling can be oversized to accommodate increased cooling demand of high temperature events at a lower cost. Furthermore, of the nations analysed herein, Chile emerged as having the lowest cost of hydrogen, owing to the lower projected ambient temperatures and frequency of high temperature events.

Green Hydrogen (H2 via renewable-driven electrolysis) is emerging as a vector to meet net-zero emission targets, provided it is produced with a low life cycle impact. While certification schemes for green H2 have been introduced, they mainly focus on the embodied emissions from energy supply during electrolyser operation. This narrow focus on just operation is an oversight, considering that a complete green H2 value chain also includes the electrolyser's manufacturing, transport/installation, and end-of-life. Each step of this chain involves materials and energy flows that impart impacts that undermine the clean and sustainable status of H2. Therefore, holistic and harmonised assessments of the green H2 production chain are required to ensure both economic and environmental deployment of H2. Herein, we conduct an overarching environmental assessment encompassing the production chain described above, using Australia as a case study. Our results indicate that while the energy source has the most impact, material and manufacturing inputs associated with electrolyser production are increasingly significant as the scale of H2 output expands. Moreover, wind power electrolysis has a greater chance of achieving green H2 certification compared to solar powered, while increasing the amount of localised manufactured content and investment in end-of-life recycling of electrolyser components can reduce the overall life cycle impact of green H2 production by 20%.

Desalination has traditionally underpinned public water infrastructure in the Middle East and is now an important component of urban water supplies for communities in Asia, Southern Europe, the Americas, and Australia. However, the deployment of this technology in the Pacific at scale has mostly been used to support defense installations, mining operations, and tourist resorts. Drawing on data from more than 60 facilities, this chapter charts the use of seawater desalination as a source of freshwater in the Pacific. Beginning with the first installation of a multistage flash distillation system in 1964 on Hao Atoll, French Polynesia, the chapter summarizes the features of the thermal distillation and reverse osmosis desalination systems deployed in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, as well as the motivation for the projects, institutional arrangements, and current operational status. At present, the utilization of desalination in the Pacific per capita is lower than other countries of comparable gross domestic product (GDP) and water vulnerability as defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). While non-government actors, including sovereign and international development banks have plans to develop desalination facilities, a variety of obstacles prevent the wider distribution of the benefits of this climate-resistant water source. The chapter examines the potential applications of desalination in enabling economic activity, reducing pressure on freshwater resources.

AIMS:Researchers were invited by Aboriginal leaders to collaborate on this study which aimed to assess food intake in the Walgett Aboriginal community to inform long-term community-led efforts to improve food and water security and nutrition. METHODS:Aboriginal adults living in or near Walgett, a remote community in north-west NSW, Australia, completed an adapted Menzies Remote Short-item Dietary Assessment Tool, which was administered verbally and face-to-face in early 2022. Aboriginal people were involved in the survey design, training and collection, and analysis of data. Descriptive statistics were tabulated, overall and by gender, age, and location. Differences by sex, age group (18-44 years versus ≥45 years), and location (Walgett town or other) were determined using a chi-square test. RESULTS:A total of 242 participants completed the survey; 55% were female. Three-quarters of participants reported meeting the recommendations for discretionary foods (73%); however, more than half (56%) exceeded the recommended maximum serves of sugar-sweetened beverages. The proportion of participants meeting core food group guidelines was 72% for meat, 36% for fruit, 20% for bread and cereals, 6% for dairy, and 3% for vegetables. Overall, none of the participants met the recommended serves of all food groups outlined in the Australian Dietary Guidelines. CONCLUSION:Findings show that Walgett Aboriginal community members surveyed were consuming a healthier diet than national data reported for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. However, none of the participants were meeting all of the national dietary guidelines, placing them at increased risk of diet-related chronic disease. Local Aboriginal community-led efforts to improve food and water security should include specific strategies to improve nutrition.

Delivering efficient, affordable and sustainable water treatment methods in the removal of heavy metals in wastewater often remains a challenge. This paper seeks to alleviate this challenge by reviewing and assessing the viability and efficiency of different water treatment methods within the realm of end-of-life (EoL) photovoltaic (PV) module recycling. Specifically, this paper evaluates the possible designs, pretreatment requirements, efficiency, relative cost and environmental footprint of adsorption, ion exchange and membrane process, applications of physical-chemical and tertiary treatments, to protect the receiving environment and realise treated water reuse in EoL PV module recycling process respectively. The current results suggest that the membrane process is a promising solution to the various heavy metals removal in EoL PV recycling due to its comparatively good performance in efficiency and environmental footprint. Meanwhile, specifical efforts should be put into the development of cost competitiveness membrane that excels in EoL PV recycling. More importantly, exploring the potential combination of different water treatment methods could also greatly broaden the range of solutions available for addressing the existing water issues in EoL PV recycling.

Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants can be coupled with seawater desalination via Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) by recovering the cycle’s ‘free’ waste heat. However, project viability, based on the payback period, is contingent upon systematic consideration of climate variability, topography, water resources, markets, and natural hazards. This study describes a data-driven method for screening and then selecting optimal sites in Australia by integrating a Geographic Information System (GIS), System Advisor Model (SAM), MATLAB program, and a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) model. Results for potential sites based on only climate, topography, water resources, markets, and infrastructure identify approximately 2.13×105 km2 of land are suitable, granularly mainly located in the north-west and the south coastal regions with high solar resources (average direct normal irradiance (DNI) > 6 ). These regions encompass 56,000 km2 and 25,100 km2 of suitable areas, respectively, with potential payback periods as low as 12.2 years and 14.0 years. Queensland's northern coastal regions also show promise with a potential payback period of 13.4 years, but the suitable area is only 2,070 km2 due to the marine protection areas in the eastern coastal zone. New South Wales faces hurdles due to topography and lower solar resources. Model results were consistent with the development of CSP installations in Australia, particularly, the Aurora facility in South Australia. This study provides a precise delineation of CSP-MED integration regions in Australia through the multi-dimensional analysis, offering insights into payback periods, and quantifying variable impacts on project geographical, technical, and economic feasibility.

Understanding the kinetics of the interfacial polymerization (IP) reaction is one of the crucial factors in tailoring the characteristics and performance of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. In this novel study, we report a kinetic investigation of polyamide (PA) film formation and growth by IP reaction between M-phenylenediamine (MPD) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC), in real-time, using the absorbance spectroscopy (AS) method. We investigated the effects of monomer concentrations, as well as that of IP reaction time for support free films, on kinetic behavior and film characteristics. The real-time results showed a significant effect of monomer concentration on the kinetics of reaction especially during the first few seconds of interfacial polymerization. We showed that the increase in thickness of film measured ex situ by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), follows similar trends to the in-situ absorbance with polymerization time, for this formulation. Furthermore, a quasi-linear trend between absorbance and film thickness, for formulations of TMC of 0.2 wt/wt% and MPD concentrations at or above 0.255 wt/wt%, was found, which was not apparent for lower MPD concentrations. This suggests that there may be a critical MPD concentration for a given TMC value that gives a ‘defect-free’ film; below this concentration a continuous (fully densified and defect free) film cannot form. This study confirms that the AS method, provides an opportunity to investigate the kinetics, predict the characteristics (structure) and optimize the IP conditions (monomer concentration ratio) to achieve RO and nanofiltration (NF) membranes with tailored performance.

Development of sustainable, gigawatt capacity green hydrogen will require both renewable energy and water inputs, along with careful management of the waste heat produced by these processes (i.e., 9.3–16.7 kWhth/kgH2 for a 70–80% stack efficiency, high heat value). Here we compare the water demands and operating costs for a solar-driven electrolyser facility (powered by solar PV) operating on desalinated seawater produced using reverse osmosis or low-temperature multi-effect distillation. The waste heat was managed via passive cooling, evaporative cooling or through thermal recovery. It was found that the costs for low-temperature multi-effect distillation were up to 85% lower than reverse osmosis and generated 50–270L/ kgH2 of surplus water for ancillary benefit. This work challenges conventional wisdom surrounding the use of membrane desalination for meeting the water demands, offering compelling reasons for thermal desalination to be employed in large-scale production of green hydrogen.

Cold plasma-based oxidation, wherein several reactive species are produced by combining a gas with electrical discharges, can treat algal-impacted waters. A novel approach to discharge cold plasma via bubbles, known as cold plasma-activated bubbles (CPABs), has gained attention due to increased interfacial area and residence time of bubbles, thereby effectively transporting reactive species. In this study, the efficacy of air-CPABs and oxygen-CPABs in treating Chlorella vulgaris-laden MilliQ and phosphate buffered saline (PBS) in the immediate and longterm (168 h) was evaluated via flow cytometry. Air-CPABs and O-2-CPABs were equally effective in the immediate and long-term for reducing cell numbers (65-100 % MilliQ; 0-45 % PBS) and increasing cell damage and inactivation (100 % in MilliQ and PBS in 3 h and 168 h, respectively). However, O-2-CPABs are preferable due to negligible nitrite and nitrate concentrations in the treated water compared to air-CPABs where nitrite and nitrate concentrations were 36-122 mg center dot L-1 and 42-298 mg center dot L-1, respectively, thereby, exceeding regulatory guideline limits. After air-CPAB treatment, the ratio of "intact but inactive" cells to "damaged but active" cells in PBS increased from 0.8 to 1 to 1.2-33.6, suggesting that healthy cells were inactivated prior to damage. This ratio declined from 3.6 to 16 to similar to 1 in O-2-CPABs, caused by increasing numbers of "damaged but active" cells. For both, O-center dot(2) and (OH)-O-center dot radicals had the greatest impact on algal cell removal in MilliQ (0-28 %); O-3 and O-center dot(2) caused the most damage and inactivation (36-41 %) when using O-2-CPABs in PBS. CPAB energy yields (3.95-8.82 x 10(10) cells center dot kWh(-1)) were comparable to- or similar to 3-7 x greater than those achieved via non-bubble plasma discharges at relatively lower discharge power (2.2-4.3 kW), indicating that CPABs efficiently utilised the discharged power for algal treatment and promoted sustainability.

In the quest for the next generation desalination/water reuse membranes, there is an increasing interest in the potential of 3-dimensionally (3D) printed membranes; one promising candidate method is the electrospray (ES) technique. This work proposes a new approach based on the ES technique to print polyamide thin-film composite membranes in a single scan. Herein, we first dip-coated a polydopamine (PDA) layer to tailor the surface properties of the supporting substrate so that a layer of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) aqueous solution can be loaded on top of the coated substrate. We then utilized different electrohydrodynamics (EHDs) of the ES tech-nique to deliver the trimesoyl chloride (TMC) organic solution. Two key factors, the PDA coating duration and the EHD conditions of the TMC solution, were systematically studied. The substrate with a 4-h PDA coating was found to be optimal to enable consistent ES printing given its enhanced surface wetting property. Using this substrate, 4 selected EHD conditions of the TMC solution at 4 spray distances resulted in different membrane morphologies, surface chemistries, and separation performance. While a focused jet of TMC solution at 1 cm spray distance resulted in an interesting polyamide stripe pattern, a cone-jet spray at 2.5 cm spray distance showed the highest NaCl rejection at 98.1%. The membrane formation mechanism is also elucidated; a proposed 'capping' effect can explain the performance trend based on the morphology and chemical characterization. Overall, the printed polyamide membranes in our approach showed better combinations of water permeance and solute rejection than a polyamide membrane prepared by conventional interfacial polymerization. Thus, this study offers a promising and innovative method to print patterned polyamide membranes potentially with enhanced separation performance.

Four different machine learning algorithms, including Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), Multivariable Linear Regression (MLR), Support Vector Regressions (SVR), and Gaussian Process Regressions (GPR), were applied to predict the performance of a multi-media filter operating as a function of raw water quality and plant operating variables. The models were trained using data collected over a seven year period covering water quality and operating variables, including true colour, turbidity, plant flow, and chemical dose for chlorine, KMnO4, FeCl3, and Cationic Polymer (PolyDADMAC). The machine learning algorithms have shown that the best prediction is at a 1-day time lag between input variables and unit filter run volume (UFRV). Furthermore, the RF algorithm with grid search using the input metrics mentioned above with a 1-day time lag has provided the highest reliability in predicting UFRV with a RMSE and R2 of 31.58 and 0.98, respectively. Similarly, RF with grid search has shown the shortest training time, prediction accuracy, and forecasting events using a ROC-AUC curve analysis (AUC over 0.8) in extreme wet weather events. Therefore, Random Forest with grid search and a 1-day time lag is an effective and robust machine learning algorithm that can predict the filter performance to aid water treatment operators in their decision makings by providing real-time warning of the potential turbidity breakthrough from the filters.

Extracellular organic matter (EOM) released by algae during algal blooms have been reported to present sig-nificant challenges for ultrafiltration (UF) fouling management. However, current understanding of the impact of complex interactions between biopolymers in EOM and the impact of membrane surface properties including pore size and roughness on subsequent fouling behaviour is limited. In this study, EOM from Dolichospermum circinale (DC), two strains of Microcystis aeruginosa (MA555 and MA564), and Chlorella vulgaris (CV), were characterised and filtered with three polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) UF membranes. Fouling rate across algal species was found to decrease in the order MA564 > DC > CV > MA555. The high fouling rate of MA564 was attributed to complex carbohydrate aggregation and covalent protein-carbohydrate interactions forming gly-coproteins. The biopolymer networks present in MA564 also enhanced fouling reversibility, potentially through electrostatic repulsion interactions with the membrane surface. For DC and MA555, the behaviour of short-term fouling was observed to depend on biopolymer content. Membrane surface roughness influenced the fouling behaviour of DC and MA555, while smaller pore size generally resulted in lower irreversible fouling for all species due to reduced impact of pore blocking. Biopolymers and low molecular weight neutrals (LMWN) were observed to bind to membrane surfaces and pore walls leading to greater chemical cleaning demand for DC and CV, respectively. This study demonstrated the significance of complex biopolymeric interactions elucidated by detailed characterisation methods and the role of membrane pore size and roughness on EOM fouling behaviour towards more effective UF management during algal blooms.

High operation and maintenance costs, and 'last-mile' issues for populations not connected to municipal water infrastructure, have limited the utility of centralized reverse osmosis (RO) systems to alleviate water availability issues for rural communities. To address these challenges, a decentralized RO module which employs tubular RO membranes was designed and investigated. The system represents an appropriate technology because it requires minimal pretreatment and it fits in self-contained, low profile suitcase. This compact desgin also incorporated innovative 3D printed static mixers to minimize salt concentration polarization and to improve performance. Since grid electricity may also be discontinuous in the target use cases, the system was tested with two direct current (DC) power solutions: a photovoltaics-battery configuration and an alternator-battery. The final prototype weighs less than 15 kg and was found to have a production capacity of-8 L/h, consuming-100 W of pumping power. Experiments of the prototype module revealed a 96% rejection rate of salt from a 1000-2000 ppm synthetic groundwater solution and a >99% rejection coefficient for bovine serum albumin protein and humic acid. From these performance metrics, it was estimated that 36 sets of this decentralized system (with a total CapEx of US$23,400) could provide drinking water for-600 rural households at a unit cost of water of 1 LKR/L (0.005 USD/L) in Sri Lanka. Overall, this study demonstrates how computational modeling and 3D printing can be leveraged to develop a compact and cost-effective decentralized RO package that could be rapidly deployed to water-stressed rural areas and in disaster relief applications. (c) 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.