The co-evolutionary arms race between crops and their parasites requires continuous identification of new resistance mechanisms. Broomrape (Orobanche cumana), a root parasitic plant, poses a severe threat to sunflower (Helianthus annuus) production, yet the genetic architecture underlying host resistance remains poorly understood. To address this, we established a high-throughput phenotyping platform to quantify root infestation across a diverse sunflower association mapping (SAM) population. Combining this phenotypic resource with a dual genome-wide association study (GWAS) strategy based on both single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and k-mers, we highlight the genetic basis of broomrape resistance at unprecedented resolution. Our analyses revealed quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and identified novel candidate genes, including putative leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases potentially involved in parasite recognition and defense activation. Importantly, the k-mer approach circumvented reference genome bias and uncovered key genomic introgressions from wild Helianthus relatives that contribute substantially to resistance. These findings demonstrate the utility of integrating high-resolution phenotyping with advanced association mapping to dissect complex host-parasite interactions. Moreover, they emphasize the enduring value of wild germplasm as a reservoir of adaptive variation, providing crop breeders with crucial tools to counter the rapid evolutionary dynamics of parasitic plants.

The root holoparasitic plant Orobanche aegyptiaca (broomrape) severely reduces crop productivity by attaching to host roots and diverting nutrients. Broomrape seed germination is triggered by root-exuded strigolactones, making early control challenging. Conventional management relies on sulfonylurea herbicides, which pose environmental risks due to leaching and non-target toxicity. Here, we developed eco-friendly silica particles (Si-µL) grafted with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) (Si-µL@APTES) to adsorb strigolactones in the rhizosphere, disrupting host–parasite signaling without affecting tomato growth or general soil microbial activity. Si-µL@APTES formed stable suspensions and achieved high strigolactone adsorption, leading to significant reductions in broomrape seed germination in petri-dish assays and decreased tuber attachment in hydroponic bioassays. In a 60-day greenhouse trial, repeated Si-µL@APTES applications reduced broomrape infection and enhanced tomato biomass compared to untreated controls. These results demonstrate that tailored silica composites can provide a sustainable, herbicide-free approach to broomrape management, directly protecting crops while preserving soil health. Our findings highlight the potential of soil-applied, functionalized mineral particles to improve crop productivity and food security, offering a practical solution for parasitic weed control in tomato and potentially other vegetable crops.

BACKGROUND:Crop rotation is a central component of integrated weed management (IWM) under real-world conditions, yet its impact on herbicide use remains unclear. To address this challenge, we developed an ecoinformatics-driven analysis approach based on farmer-reported data from 11 farms, spanning approximately 400 fields and 3303 crop-year records across diverse arable zones. The workflow analysis was divided into three main stages: (i) trend-screening, examining temporal changes in herbicide intensity across major summer crops and rotational patterns of crops and herbicides; (ii) identification of key drivers associated with variability in herbicide intensity, and (iii) mechanistic clue finding, revealing explanations for patterns observed in the first two stages. RESULTS:A significant positive association was found between herbicide intensity and years in maize (P < 0.001). The frequency of cotton in crop rotation was identified as the most consistent predictor of herbicide intensity in this crop (estimate = -0.25, P < 0.001). Maize fields in which cotton was prevalent in the rotation received approximately one fewer herbicide application than fields without cotton in the rotation. Principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted tillage as the primary driver of the differentiation between maize fields with and without a history of cotton. Temporal testing showed that the cotton effect persisted for 2 years. CONCLUSION:Cotton-based rotations reduced herbicide inputs in maize, with cotton-specific tillage practices providing a mechanistic explanation for the weed-suppressive effect. These results highlight the advantage of IWM and demonstrate the utility of ecoinformatics for detecting rotation effects in large-scale farm data. © 2026 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The root holoparasitic plant Phelipanche aegyptiaca (broomrape) severely reduces crop productivity by attaching to host roots and diverting nutrients. Broomrape seed germination is triggered by root-exuded strigolactones, making early control challenging. Conventional management relies on sulfonylurea herbicides, which pose environmental risks due to leaching and non-target toxicity. Here, we developed eco-friendly silica particles (Si-μL) grafted with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) (Si-μL@APTES) to adsorb strigolactones in the rhizosphere, disrupting host-parasite signaling, while the selected large particles showed no detectable negative effect on tomato growth or CO2-based microbial respiration under the tested conditions. Si-μL@APTES formed stable suspensions and achieved high strigolactone adsorption, leading to significant reductions in broomrape seed germination in petri-dish assays and decreased tuber attachment in hydroponic bioassays. In a 90-day greenhouse trial, Si-μL@APTES reduced broomrape infection and increased tomato biomass at 60 DAP, whereas final fresh and dry biomass at 90 DAP did not differ significantly among treatments, indicating that additional applications of the particles may be necessary. These results support the potential of functionalized silica particles as a promising herbicide-free approach for broomrape management. Our findings highlight the potential of soil-applied, functionalized mineral particles to improve crop productivity and food security, offering a practical solution for parasitic weed control in tomato and potentially other vegetable crops.

Optimizing herbicide efficacy is increasingly critical due to the absence of new herbicide modes of action (MOA) and their widespread overuse. This study developed a satellite-based approach to map herbicide control failures for evaluating efficacy, based on the hypothesis that effective control reduces crop-weeds co-existence and thus spectral-spatial heterogeneity over time, whereas low efficacy increases it. In controlled experimental maize plots (2022–2023), analysis of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) multispectral imagery characterized weed-suppression dynamics following application of two herbicides with different MOA. Satellite imagery was processed to select gray-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) texture features sensitive to herbicide-induced pixel differences. Features selected were used to compare two satellite-based approaches for mapping herbicide control failures cover (

The invasive perennial weed Ambrosia confertiflora (Burr ragweed) is widespread across various climatic regions in Israel and neighboring countries. This study examines how temperature affects the development of the plants’ aboveground and underground organs, as well as biomass allocation. We hypothesize that temperature influences how the plant distributes resources, thereby modifying its phenotypic morphology and contributing to its spread. Plants were grown in a phytotron under four seasonal temperature regimes (10–16 °C, 16–22 °C, 22–28 °C, 28–34 °C, N-D, 14 h light). We measured above- and belowground biomass, growth form, leaf size, and the interaction between temperature and apical dominance. Our results show that biomass allocation varies with temperature and developmental stage. During early growth, resources are primarily directed toward shoot development and leaf production. As plants matured, they shifted more resources to underground structures, eventually balancing allocation. At lower temperatures, plants invested more in underground growth while the shoot remained in the rosette form. In contrast, higher temperatures favored aboveground growth. Ambrosia confertiflora demonstrates significant phenotypic plasticity in response to temperature variation, affecting plant height, leaf morphology, and resource allocation in both shoot and underground tissues. Understanding how temperature drives these changes is critical to understanding the spread and ecological impact of this highly adaptable weed.

Egyptian broomrape (Phelipanche aegyptiaca (Pers.) Pomel) develops largely belowground, so tomato experiments commonly provide infection labels at the plant level while the spectral status of individual canopy pixels remains unknown. We developed a weakly supervised ground-based hyperspectral workflow that preserves this label structure and evaluated it across three campaigns (2022-2024). The dataset comprised 291 Specim IQ reflectance cubes (512 x 512 pixels, 204 bands, 397-1004 nm) from 92 plants sampled at four growing degree day (GDD) stages in 2022, five in 2023, and one stage in 2024. Sunlit tomato canopy pixels were isolated, summarized as superpixel instances, and represented by leakage-controlled grouped reflectance, derivative, and vegetation-index features. A hierarchical gated-attention multiple-instance learning (MIL) model combined local instance evidence across dates using a fixed GDD detectability gate. Leave-one-plant-out evaluation compared MIL with plant-mean baselines; a post-hoc MIL-logistic regression fusion was reported as an exploratory development estimate. Standalone MIL ROC-AUC was 0.494, 0.552, and 0.674 in 2022, 2023, and 2024, respectively. Exploratory fusion yielded ROC-AUC values of 0.852, 0.810, and 0.716, with plant-mean information dominating the first two campaigns. Consensus importance profiles emphasized visible, red-edge, and near-infrared regions, while independent laboratory traits showed treatment-associated differences in pigments and leaf chemistry. The study contributes a leakage-controlled, weak-supervision framework for stage-aware detection of broomrape-associated host response rather than direct parasite localization.

This study investigated the impact of climate variability on pigweed ( Amaranthus spp.) management in processing tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ) fields across northern Israel, which span a climate gradient from semiarid to Mediterranean conditions. Conducted over two consecutive growing seasons (2020–2021), the research aimed to optimize weed management recommendations on a regional scale. The main objectives were to assess treatment timing and intensity and evaluate the efficacy of integrated weed management (IWM) in reducing reliance on herbicides. In 2020, standard chemical treatments—a tank‐mix application of metribuzin (175 g a.i. ha −1 ) and rimsulfuron (25 g a.i. ha −1 )—were applied in six field experiments based on cumulative growing degree days (GDD) to account for climate variability among sites. An infestation index was developed to represent the initial state of the fields and the magnitude of the change in infestation. In 2021, IWM was introduced, combining finger weeder cultivation with herbicide treatments at three sites. Results from the first season showed that in early‐plantings, a single herbicide application at 150 GDD was as effective as dual applications at 150 and 300 GDD. However, in late plantings, a single application at 300 GDD was ineffective. In the second season, all treatments effectively reduced Amaranthus infestation, with IWM performing comparably to herbicide alone. Importantly, IWM demonstrated the potential to control herbicide‐resistant biotypes while minimizing chemical use, making it an environmentally sustainable option. This study underscores the importance of optimized application timing for minimizing unnecessary chemical treatments, offering valuable insights for growers facing future climate challenges.

Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae), commonly known as desert horse purslane or black pigweed, is a C4 dicot succulent invasive annual plant that is widespread in agricultural fields in Southeast Asia, tropical America, Africa, and Australia. In Israel, Trianthema portulacastrum is an invasive weed of increasing importance in agricultural fields, including mainly corn, tomato, alfalfa watermelon, and groundnut crops. The significance of this weed in crops has been recently reported in neighboring countries of Jordan and Egypt. In previous studies, we have examined and described the spread, biology, and germination requirements of Trianthema portulacastrum in Israel. The present study aimed to investigate the efficiency of single pre- and post-emergence herbicides and the combination of pre-applied herbicides for the control of this invasive weed in pots in a nethouse. We conducted three sequential experiments in a nethouse: (1) screening of pre-emergence herbicides, (2) screening of post-emergence herbicides, and (3) assessment of residual activity of combined pre-emergence herbicides in three distinct Hula Valley soil types. Efficacy was evaluated through weekly assessments of seedling emergence and vigor, with the final shoot fresh weight determined upon the experiment’s completion. In all experiments, weekly counts and vigor estimation of T. portulacastrum seedlings were conducted, and shoot fresh weights were determined at the end of the experiments. The results of pre-emergence herbicide screening showed that Fomesafen, Terbutryne, Flurochloridon, Sulfosulfuron, Cyrosulfamid + Izoxaflutole, and Dimethenamid were the most effective herbicides, leading to complete eradication of T. portulacastrum plants. Results of the post-emergence screening revealed that Saflufenacil, Foramsulfuron, Tembotrione + Isoxdifen-ethyl, and Rimsulfurom Methyl completely controlled the weed. In the soil residual study, three herbicide combinations (Fomesafen + Terbutryn, Sulfosulfuron + Fomesafen, and Dimethenamid + Flurochloridon) provided effective control across all soil types. These findings provide a foundation for future field trials investigating integrated pre- and post-emergence herbicide programs for T. portulacastrum management in various crops.

Organic farming is expanding globally in response to the growing need for more sustainable food production. However, assessing both direct and indirect environmental effects is essential for identifying effective practices. This paper employs a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) using a cradle-to-farm gate framework to evaluate the environmental effects of non-chemical weed control methods (row-cultivator, finger-weeding, flaming, and hand-weeding) in combination with four fertilization treatments (compost at 10, 30, and 60 m3 ha-1, and chemical fertilizer) in the production of four organic field crops grown under irrigated conditions in a Mediterranean climate. The analysis shows that producing 1 kg of crop results in emissions of 0.5-1.6 kg CO2 eq., 0.002-0.009 kg SO2, and energy use of 9-37 MJ. Over 95 % of these impacts are driven by irrigation, fertilizers, and weed and pest management. Significant differences between treatments underscore the role of crop-specific farming practices. Finger-weeding consistently lowered environmental impact across most conditions, whereas cultivation and flaming generally resulted in moderate to high impacts regardless of fertilizer level. Hand-weeding had the lowest environmental impact but was the most labor-intensive approach. The untreated control consistently led to the highest environmental burdens, reinforcing the necessity of effective weed management. By identifying key environmental hotspots, this study provides a foundation for optimizing weed control and fertilization strategies, integrating best farming practices, and informing policies to improve the sustainability and resilience of organic cropping systems in Mediterranean agriculture.

### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Sunflower broomrape (Orobanche cumana) poses a severe threat to sunflower crops, parasitizing their roots and hindering plant growth. Current control methods, which typically rely on uniform herbicide applications, are economically inefficient and environmentally damaging. This study investigates the use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based multispectral imaging to detect broomrape-infected sunflowers by analyzing temporal patterns in spectral vegetation indices (VIs). Over four imaging campaigns conducted during early subsoil parasitic stages, multispectral data were collected and processed to compute ten VIs. These VIs, reflecting changes in canopy reflectance over time, were then analyzed using various machine learning models, including a pattern recognition neural network (PRNN). Results showed that the PRNN model, trained on time-series data, achieved an overall accuracy of 84.8% and a true positive rate of 80.4% in detecting broomrape infection, emphasizing the strength of utilizing temporal data for enhancing detection accuracies. Pixel-level reconstruction maps revealed varying spectral responses within infected canopies, highlighting the importance of accounting for this heterogeneity. This study demonstrates the potential of UAV-based multispectral imaging combined with advanced machine learning (ML) techniques for early detection of broomrape infestations in sunflower crops, offering insights for managing similar infestations in other crops.

Root parasitic weeds of the genera Striga, Orobanche, and Phelipanche cause enormous economic losses for farmers the world over. Germination of the seeds of these species requires a chemotropic signal in the form of strigolactones in the soil. Once a root parasitic weed germinates and becomes established, it draws nutrition from the host plants, leading to plant death and hence yield reduction. Despite the obvious importance of strigolactones, there is currently almost no information about the fate of strigolactones in the soil, although microbial involvement has been suggested. To begin to address this knowledge lacuna, we developed a bioassay-using the strigolactone synthetic analogue GR24-as a high-throughput, inexpensive, and compact tool for monitoring the dissipation of strigolactones (GR24 in this case) in the soil by microorganisms and/or environmental conditions, including GR24 concentration, soil type, and temperature. As part of the bioassay, it was found that autoclaving the soil delayed the dissipation of GR24 versus sterilisation by gamma radiation and or no sterilisation. Analytical LC-MS/MS with a detection limit of 0.1 ppb confirmed this finding, with no GR24 being detected in non-sterilised soil after 24 h. Application of the bioassay to monitor GR24 dissipation in soil showed that the higher the GR24 concentration the slower the degradation, and the higher the temperature, the faster the degradation. It also showed that the organic matter content of the soil affected the GR24 dissipation rate. These findings were also confirmed by analytical LC-MS/MS, indicating the applicability of the methodology for studies of root exudes.

In this study, we explore spectral heterogeneity within plant canopies, a characteristic often observed in stressed plants where certain leaves or intra-leaf regions exhibit stress symptoms while others remain unaffected. Considering this variability in spectral signatures holds promise for enhancing remote sensing methodologies aimed at plant stress detection. Typically, remote sensing techniques analyze the plant as a whole, potentially overlooking stress-related spectral signatures due to the inclusion of unaffected pixels. We used a clusteringbased technique, which incorporates semi-supervised learning elements for tuning hyper-parameters, to differentiate spectral patterns associated with and unique to pixels from broomrape-infected (Orobanche spp. and Phelipanche spp.) carrots from unrelated patterns. Ground-based hyperspectral (400-1000 nm) images of broomrape-infected and non-infected carrot canopies were used in an agglomerative clustering procedure followed by spectral angle mapper (SAM) analysis to identify a spectral endmember indicative of broomrape infection symptoms. Pixels from this cluster constituted an average of 8.5-11.5 % from the canopies of infected plants. Subsequently, we: (a) examined the relationship between carrot leaf mineral content and the percentage of symptomatic pixels to explore stress-induced alterations creating the unique spectral signatures of infected plants; and (b) utilized the inverse mode of PROSPECT, a radiative transfer model (RTM), to derive primary plant traits from the distinct spectral data of each cluster. We found that deficits in two macro elements, phosphorous and potassium, along with two pigments, chlorophyll and carotenoid, were correlated with the symptomatic cluster in infected plants. The methodology presented in this study paves the way for further research into broomrape detection in various crop species, as well as other plant stressors.

Amaranthus palmeri (Palmer Amaranth) is a dioecious annual weed species, originating from the Southern USA, spreading rapidly beyond its original range into Europe and the Mediterranean region. In Israel, A. palmeri distribution has expanded quickly in recent years, with farmers reporting on weed control failure using acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors. Furthermore, recent studies have documented glyphosate-resistant cases from other countries in the region, such as Spain, Greece and Turkey. We conducted a survey in order to understand A. palmeri distribution and study the occurrence of herbicide resistance to both glyphosate and trifloxysulfuron in different fields across the country. According to our data, A. palmeri population locations are aligned with the major agricultural areas for summer field crops, including the Hula Valley, Jezreel Valley and the Southern Coastal Plain. Regarding herbicide responses, while several populations showed a reduced response to glyphosate, dose-response assays did not show resistance to the recommended labelled field rate. For the ALS inhibitor trifloxysulfuron, the survival percentage was very high, especially in the southern coastline region (77%). Four populations used for dose-response studies were highly resistant, surviving at four times the recommended labelled field rate of trifloxysulfuron (30 g a.i. ha-1). Sequencing of the ALS gene, Trp574 to Leu alteration in resistant populations was recorded in all populations. The high level of resistance observed in this study, alongside the target-site mutation found in populations of A. palmeri, endangers the future use of ALS inhibitors in corn, cotton, and other summer crops grown in Israel.

Understanding the effects of abiotic, biotic, and management factors on weed germination is vital for optimizing weed control in agricultural fields. Nevertheless, the considerable variability among weed populations may undermine the reliability of these efforts. This study explores the intra-specific variability of Amaranthus albus populations obtained from agricultural fields across a climate gradient, ranging from semi-arid to Mediterranean. We explore the influence of temperature on germination, characterize A. albus seed morphology and assess seedling growth rate, while considering maternal effects. Nine populations were collected in northern Israel, and F-2 generation seeds were produced under uniform conditions. Seed traits, germination patterns and growth rate of both maternal and progeny populations were characterized and compared. The estimated parameters of time-to-event models of populations and generations were compared using a meta-analytic approach. There were significant seed weight differences among the F-1 populations, with eastern populations having the highest mean weights (28.6-38.5 mg per 50 seeds). Overall, F-1 populations had higher seed weight than F-2 populations (25.5 vs. 23.4 mg; p < 0.001). Two distinct germination patterns were observed in F-1 populations: For the early-season planting areas, germination was rapid and uniform, with higher germination percentages at lower temperatures; in contrast, for the late-planting areas, germination was delayed and variable, with higher percentages under more favorable conditions (30 degrees C). F-2 populations exhibited nearly identical germination patterns in response to temperature. The initial growth rate over time was similar across populations and generations, indicating that maternal conditions had no effect beyond the germination phase. The plasticity in the germination response to temperature suggests that modeling A. albus behavior is possible but requires a thorough understanding of underlying system components. The study emphasizes the importance of incorporating location-specific factors into weed management strategies, considering both natural processes and anthropogenic influences shaping weed populations.

Silverleaf nightshade ( Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.), a noxious, highly invasive perennial weed, poses a significant threat to irrigated summer crops, vegetables, and orchards. This weed has the ability to reproduce both sexually through seed production and asexually via an extensive underground rhizome network, the latter playing a major role in the weed’s invasion, establishment, and persistence. Our aims were thus to assess the impact of temperature on rhizome sprouting for fragments of different lengths and to model the sprouting dynamics. The influence of temperature on the sprouting of rhizome fragments (2.5-, 5-, 7.5-, or 10-cm long) was investigated in growth chambers at eight temperatures ranging from 10 to 45 C. The highest sprouting proportions for 10-cm rhizome fragments were recorded at 30 and 35 C in complete darkness. The highest sprouting time for all fragment lengths was observed at 15 C in complete darkness. Modeling sprouting rates as a function of temperature gave the cardinal temperatures for the four different rhizome fragment lengths, with T b (base temperature) values of 12.80, 9.34, 9.14, and 9.50 C, T o (optimal temperature) values of 38.9 $$0$$ , 36.60, 35.16, and 34.86 C, and T c (ceiling temperature) values of 39.80, 40.08, 40.50, and 40.80 C for rhizome lengths of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 cm, respectively. Based on these findings, the potential for S. elaeagnifolium to spread to new areas and possible new management strategies are discussed; these offer a novel approach for informed decision making regarding the control of this weed.

Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae), commonly known as desert horse purslane or black pigweed, is a C4 dicot succulent annual herb that is widespread in Southeast Asia, tropical America, Africa, and Australia. In Israel, it is an invasive weed of increasing importance in agricultural fields. The aim of this study was to investigate the biology of this invasive weed and its spread in the Hula Valley of Israel. Initial studies included the investigation of the T. portulacastrum specimens held at the Israel National Herbarium. On-site surveillance for the identification of weed infestation locations was conducted in the Hula Valley throughout 2019–2022, and an infestation map was assembled. In a study of the plant biology, greenhouse pot experiments revealed that T. portulacastrum seeds emerge best from the upper soil levels, and as seed depth increases, the emergence rate decreases, so that at 6 cm soil depth, there was no emergence. In controlled-environment growth chamber studies, there were no significant differences in germination with or without light. A maximum germination of 81% was observed for a 12 h night/day of 25/35 °C regime. Germination rates decreased with the decrease in temperature. A seed germination thermal time model that was developed for estimating the minimum temperature required for germination (Tbase) computed this temperature to be 10 °C. This study revealed the biology, in particular seed germination and emergence requirements, of the invasive weed T. portulacastrum that has spread in the Hula Valley in Israel and beyond. Future research will focus on an examination of control measures to combat this invasive weed.

Mechanical weed control tools are commonly used in the production of many vegetable and field crops. This study aimed to determine the impact of weed species and growth stage on the finger weeder performances and to reveal the relation between root morphology, uprooting force and control efficacy. A one-month field experiment with two model species, Triticum aestivum L. (grass) and Sinapis alba L. (broadleaf), showed that finger weeder control efficacy was affected by species and growth stage: Finger-weeder application during the first two growth stages (cotyledon and second leaf) was more effective for S. alba than for T. aestivum (p < 0.0001), but at fourth-leaf stage values for control efficacy were not significantly different (p = 0.134). In an experiment conducted in pots it was found that, at all three growth stages, the uprooting force required for S. alba was significantly lower than that for T. aestivum (p < 0.0001), indicating a lower anchoring force of the former. Determination of root-morphology parameters revealed significantly higher root parameters, like length, in T. aestivum than in S. alba at the early developmental stages. Correlation of the control efficacy and uprooting force revealed a 2.5-N threshold value for effective weed control. Additionally, net-house and field experiments showed significant differences in the uprooting forces required for 10 different Mediterranean grasses versus broadleaves weed species at all developmental stages. To translate these findings into applicative recommendations, future research should characterize the relationship between the operational factors of this tool and the required uprooting force.