Hibiscus sabdariffa L., also known as Roselle, has widespread use for medicinal and nutritional purposes. It is important to detect its toxic potential due to its beneficial uses in food and beverage, health, cosmetics, etc. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of Hibiscus sabdariffa by Allium test. All concentrations and application periods of Hibiscus sabdariffa extracts decreased the mitotic index and increased the chromosomal defects compared to the control. These effects were statistically significant at 0.5 mg/mL (p˂0.05). The mitotic and chromosomal defects can pave the way for the development of genetic diseases such as cancer, as well as leading to the loss of cell functions and death mechanisms such as apoptosis. Therefore, it is important to avoid using the herb in high concentrations.

Cytogenetic studies on mites (and ticks) remain scarce and have received limited attention in the literature. In this study, for the first time, chromosome numbers of two species belonging to Trombidioidea are presented. The diploid chromosome number was determined to be 2n=12 in Trombidium latum C.L. Koch, 1837 (Trombidiidae) and 2n=14 in Eutrombidium trigonum (Hermann, 1804) (Microtrombidiidae). Additionally, a comprehensive list of mite species with known chromosome numbers to date has been compiled. To support species identification, we generated the COI gene sequence of T. latum from Türkiye and compared it with available sequences in GenBank. The integration of cytogenetic and molecular data aims to improve species identification and provide a foundation for future phylogenetic and genetic diversity studies in trombidioid mites.

The polyphyletic genus Paronychia includes about 110 species that are distributed throughout the world except in the southern of Africa and Asia. Türkiye is one of the most important distribution centers of genus Paronychia represented by 29 species. The basic and diploid chromosome numbers were recorded in 22 species (26 taxa) of Turkish Paronychia. The aim of this study is to report for the first time the karyological data of P. dudleyi and P. pontica. The chromosome number and karyotype formula were 2n = 4x = 36m in P. dudleyi and 2n = 2x = 18m in P. pontica. The karyotype asymmetry values (especially intrachromosomal) were quite low. As a result, the new karyological data were recorded: (i) first report of the basic and diploid chromosome numbers, (ii) ploidy levels of 2x and 4x, (iii) first detailed chromosomal data, (iv) the most symmetrical karyotypes.

Facile synthesis and characterisation of three natural compounds and their two synthetic analogues based on onion skin content were performed. Both OSE and 2,4,6-trihydroxyphenylglyoxylic acid was induced effect on cell proliferation during barley germination with a difference of approximately %4 compared to the control group.

Prunella L. species are distributed in very different habitats since they can adapt to variable ecological conditions. These conditions cause variations in morphological characters. It is very important to support morphological and taxonomic characters with genetic data. So far, various diploid numbers have been reported in the chromosomal records of Turkish Prunella species. The situation is particularly complex in P. vulgaris L. and P. grandiflora (L.) Turra species. The aim of this study is to eliminate the complexity by presenting karyological data of these species. The chromosome number and chromosome lengths of P. grandiflora and P. vulgaris were reported for the first time from Turkey. The diploid and basic numbers were detected as 2n = 28 and x =7 by ploidy levels of 4x in P. grandiflora and P. vulgaris. As a result, the karyology of the genus Prunella was evaluated by comparing previous and present results. The listed data provided important contributions to the cytotaxonomy of the genus Prunella: (i) the basic number was x = 7, (ii) the most common diploid number was 2n = 28, and (iii) high polyploidy rates. The polyploidy probably played an important role in the speciation of the genus.

Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an economical plant with a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20 and used in many areas, especially in industry. The aim of this study is to perform detailed karyotype analysis and detailed chromosomal measurements using five different genotypes of the plant known as diploid chromosome number 2n = 20, to determine the karyotype asymmetry for the first time, and to investigate the polyploidy variations. The diploid chromosome number and karyotype formula were 2n = 2x = 20 = 18m + 2sm. The karyotype had small metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. The smallest chromosome length, largest chromosome length, total haploid chromosome length, and average haploid chromosome length were 2.41, 3.55, 29.87, and 2.99 μm, respectively. Intrachromosomal and interchromosomal karyotype asymmetries were calculated using many different parameters, mainly MCA (mean centromeric asymmetry) and CVCL (variation coefficient of chromosome length). According to the asymmetry values, the species had quite symmetrical karyotype. Although the diploid chromosome number was known as 2n = 20, detailed karyotype analysis and karyotype asymmetry data were presented for the first time by this study. In addition, in the study carried out on five different genotypes, polyploidy variation was detected in one genotype.

Detailed karyological analyses of the Nigelleae tribe which includes taxa belonging to both genera Garidella and Nigella were performed. All studied taxa are diploid with 2 n = 12 and all the chromosomes are Ranunculus-type, chromosome size is large, and all taxa exhibit metacentric chromosomes. The karyotype formulas for Nigella and Garidella are 10m+2st and 12m, respectively, and only Nigella orientalis has satellite (SAT) chromosomes among the studied taxa. Secondary constrictions were documented in N. elata and N. orientalis . Genome size was determined using flow cytometry (FCM) and 2C genome sizes of some diploid Nigella species ranged from 21.25 to 23.48 pg. In contrast, a much smaller genome size, 17.68 pg, was determined in Garidella nigellastrum . UPGM cluster analyses were carried out to evaluate the correspondence between chromosomal features and the taxonomy of the tribe. The results showed that karyological parameters are highly useful in taxonomic delimitation at the generic level.

The chromosomal data, particularly karyotype asymmetry, provide valuable information on karyotypic phylogeny and speciation. The karyotype asymmetry is a good expression of the general morphology of chromosomes. The S/AI is a formula used to calculate the karyotype asymmetry. The formula was applied to 79 species and five subspecies from 46 genera for female individuals and 72 species and five subspecies from 42 genera for male individuals in the Bovidae family. According to the S/AI values between 1.2903 and 3.0000, the dendrograms were drawn to demonstrate the interspecies relationships in the family. The karyotypes of females were symmetrical in 10 species and two subspecies from 6 genera and between symmetrical and asymmetrical in 69 species and three subspecies from 40 genera. Male karyotypes were symmetrical in 10 species and two subspecies from 6 genera and between symmetrical and asymmetrical in 62 species and three subspecies from 36 genera. The dendrograms will contribute to phylogenetic studies in mammals. Already, they showed results similar to those of molecular taxonomy.

The family Canidae is placed in the suborder Caniformia in the order Carnivora. There are both domestic and wild species in Canidae. The family consists of at least 35 wild species in 13 genera. The number of chromosomes in Canidae is divided into 2 groups. (i) The chromosome numbers are 2n = 54, 66, 74, 76, and 78 with mostly acrocentric autosomes. (ii) The chromosome numbers are 2n = 34, 36, 38, and 50 with mostly metacentric and submetacentric autosomes. The formula S/AI measure the symmetry or asymmetry of karyotype in higher animals and humans. In this study, the formula was applied to the Canidae species. After obtaining karyotype formulae with a detailed literature review, S/AI data and karyotype types of 25 female taxa and 17 male taxa were determined. According to the S/AI values, a dendrogram was drawn showing karyological variations among the taxa. The results will contribute to the phylogeny of mammals.

The genus Gundelia is currently represented with 18 species, of which 16 are in Turkey. In genus Gundelia, the chromosomal data were reported from 12 species. In the present study, it is aimed to eliminate the deficiencies in the knowledge about chromosomal data of Gundelia species. In Genus Gundelia, only a single chromosome number had been detected as 2n=18 so far. The chromosome numbers of four species were reported here for the first time: G. armeniaca, G. cappadocica, G. siirtica, and G. tehranica. In addition, the polyploidy in the genus was rare and G. anatolica was identified as the first polyploid species. All karyotypes except G. tehranica were symmetrical, consisting of metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. Secondary constrictions were observed in the distal regions of the long arms of the longest metacentric and submetacentric chromosomes. Thus, the chromosomal data of all Turkish Gundelia species were completed. In conclusion, the present study presented new data into the karyological records relating the karyotype evolution and interspecific relations of genus Gundelia.

The S/AI formula is a parameter used to determine the karyotype asymmetry in higher animals and humans. The formula was performed to the 47 Artiodactyla species. According to the S/AI values between 1.0000 and 3.0000, the dendrograms were drawn demonstrating the interspecies and interfamilies relationships in Artiodactyla. The female karyotype types are between symmetric and asymmetric in the eight families, 18 genera and 36 species; symmetric in the five families, nine genera and 10 species; full symmetric in the only one family, genus and species. The male karyotype types are between symmetric and asymmetric in the 8 families, 18 genera and 34 species; symmetric in the five families, eight genera and nine species; full symmetric in the only one family, genus and species.

The genus Satureja belonging to the Lamiaceae family includes about 200 species, generally aromatic, distributed in the Mediterranean basin. In genus Satureja, the chromosomal data were reported from only 26 species. In this study, it is aimed to eliminate the deficiencies in the chromosomal data of Satureja species, which are distributed in Turkey, which is an important center of the genus. A basic number of x = 15 dominated in reported Satureja species excluding S. hortensis. However, different basic numbers were reported. The basic number variations were probably caused by descending or ascending dysploidy and dibasic polyploidy. Nine species were diploid with 2x = 30 and two species were polyploid with 4x = 44, 48, and 60. Polyploidy was probably one of the important mechanisms in the karyotype evolution of the genus. As a result, it was reported only one chromosome number (2n = 30), the first report for chromosome numbers of three taxa, the same chromosome count (excluding B-chromosomes) from previous report in only one species, and the correction of the chromosome number of previous report in only one species. The results contributed to some missing data in Satureja cytotaxonomy.

Chromosomal data and karyological relationships provides valuable contributions to understanding speciation and karyotypic phylogeny. Because of the large number of species, wide distribution, morphological differences and chromosomal variations, Geranium is an important genus for determining the relationship between chromosomal alterations and karyotypic phylogeny. In the present study, the chromosomal data of 38 taxa are provided, nine of which are given for the first time (G. eginense, G. gracile, G. ibericum subsp. jubatum, G. lasiopus, G. libani, G. libanoticum, G. petri-davisii, G. ponticum, G. psilostemon), five present new chromosome numbers (G. asphodeloides, G. ibericum subsp. ibericum, G. molle subsp. molle, G. pretense, G. rotundifolium), and 24 agree with previous reports. Eleven different diploid numbers (2n = 18, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, 32, 46, 48, 64, and 84) are detected. In basic numbers, infraspecific variations are encountered. The comprehensive variations of basic numbers and the relatively low rate of polyploid species showed in the present study promote the evolutionary significance of karyotype alterations by dysploidy mechanism. Regarding karyological relationships, G. sanguineum forms a monophyletic group by quite different karyological features, which are different basic number, diploid number, and karyotype sample and high ploidy level. Other clad consists of two subclades with a medium strong monophyletic group. In regression analyses, there are significant positive correlations between THL and 2n/ploidy levels. Asymmetry indices (CVCL and M-CA) show weak positive correlations mainly caused by polyploidy. The most asymmetrical karyotypes are G. molle subsp. bruitium in intrachromosomal asymmetry and G. asphodeloides in interchromosomal asymmetry.

The chromosomal parameters and karyotypic relationships may provide very valuable information about speciation and karyotype evolution. In the order Oribatida, the chromosomal data are limited to a few reports. In the present study, the chromosomal data of two species are provided for the first time. The diploid chromosome numbers are 2n = 14 in Oribotritia hermanni Grandjean, 1967 (Oribatida: Oribotritiidae) and 2n = 22 in Hermanniella gibber Kulijev, 1979 (Oribatida: Hermanniellidae) and chromosomes are small holocentric chromosomes. The smallest and largest chromosome sizes are 0.38 μm and 1.08 μm in O. hermanni, respectively. The total haploid chromosome length is 4.88 μm, in O. hermanni, and a higher value of 6.98 μm is recorded in H. gibber. The sex chromosomes could not be identified, because the oribatid mites show weak sexual dimorphism. In this respect, the results of the study provide important contributions to the cytotaxonomy of oribatid mites.

The genus Salvia is characterized by such small chromosomes, which has so far restricted the cytogenetic studies. Therefore, karyomorphological aspects of the chromosome complement were rarely analyzed in the genus. The aim of this study was to report the interspecific relationships and new chromosomal data in Salvia . The chromosomal records of 25 taxa were herein provided, 8 of which were reported for the first time, 3 presented new chromosome numbers, and 14 agreed previous reports. In addition, a detailed chromosomal data of 16 taxa were provided. Eleven different chromosome numbers (2 n = 12, 14, 16, 18, 22, 26, 28, 36, 38, 42, and 52) were found by the basic number of 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, and 13. S. candelabrum was the only taxon with B-chromosomes. Salvia algeriensis had different chromosome numbers with probably dysploidy mechanisms. The polyploidy was demonstrated by the prevalence of cells with 2 n = 4 x = 28, 36, and 52 (tetraploid) and 2 n = 6 x = 42 (hexaploid). No clear relationship was observed between basic numbers/ploidy level and subgenera. Salvia taxa had different karyotypes in terms of asymmetry degrees, which had relatively low asymmetry in nine taxa, average asymmetry in five taxa, higher intrachromosomal asymmetry in S. glutinosa , and higher interchromosomal asymmetry in S. interrupta . S. taraxacifolia , S. canescens , S. jurisicii , and S. nutans were cytotaxonomically very close species by basic numbers of x = 11 and 13. The possible ancestral number is x = 11. The results contributed to some missing parts in Salvia cytotaxonomy.

In section Dentati, the chromosome numbers were reported from only eight of 30 taxa. There is no chromosomal record relating to the other 22 taxa. In the present study, it is intended to detect the chromosome numbers of section Dentati taxa. Chromosome numbers of 15 taxa were obtained, 13 of which were reported for the first time and two numbers agreed with the previous reports. 14 taxa were diploid with 2x = 30 and only one taxon was polyploid with 4x = 60. Polyploidy might have played a role in the karyotype evolution of the genus. Although polyploidy was seen, there was no dysploidy causing to change in the basic chromosome number. According to all chromosomal data on Dianthus, the basic chromosome number was only one (x = 15). In conclusion, this study presents new data into the karyological characteristics of section Dentati (genus Dianthus) that may be useful for understanding or interpreting relationships among the sections.

In section Leiopetali, the diploid chromosome numbers were reported from only six of total 25 taxa. There is no karyological data relating to other 19 taxa. In this study, it is intended to determine the diploid chromosome numbers of taxa of section Leiopetali. The diploid number of 13 species were detected, four of which were recorded for the first time and nine numbers compatible with the previous reports. Twelve species were diploid with 2n = 2x =30. D. leptopetalus was diploid and polyploid, which reveals only one polyploidy level of tetraploidy (2n = 4x = 60). Polyploidy might have played a role in the karyotype evolution of the genus. One of the most important reasons for this situation is that although polyploidy is observed in the genus Dianthus, the dysploidy mechanism that causes a change in the basic chromosome number has not been found until now. The basic number is x = 15 according to the all chromosomal reports. In conclusion, this study reports new data into the karyological characteristics of section Leiopetali (genus Dianthus) that can be useful for interpreting or understanding relationships among sections.

The genus Satureja belonging to the Lamiaceae family includes about 200 species, generally aromatic, distributed in the Mediterranean basin. In genus Satureja, the chromosomal data were reported from only 26 species. In this study, it is aimed to eliminate the deficiencies in the chromosomal data of Satureja species, which are distributed in Turkey, which is center of origin and diversity of the genus Satureja. It was reported only one chromosome number (2n = 30), the first report for chromosome numbers of three taxa, the same chromosome count (excluding B-chromosomes) with previous report in only one species, and the new chromosome number in only one species. In conclusion, this study presented new data into the chromosomal records of genus Satureja that might be useful for interpreting or understanding relationships among the species. In addition, dysploidy and polyploidy variations might probably have played an important role in speciation. In this regard, the results contributed to some missing data in Satureja cytotaxonomy.

In the 20th century, many new drugs have been designed and synthesized to be used for therapeutic purposes.In these syntheses, especially the salicylic acid group is included in the structure of many drugs.The salicylic acid molecule is the starting material of aspirin and is a structurally important compound.There are many commercial products on the market that are synthesized from salicylic acid or contain salicylic acid group.In this study, the synthesis of salicylic acid-pyrrolone hybrid compounds was carried out from the reactions of furan-3-one compounds with 4-aminosalicylic acid and 5-aminosalicylic acid reagents.The synthesis reactions were achieved in three steps and in these synthesis, biologically active pyrrolone and salicylic acid groups were integrated.The characterizations of these compounds that were purified by column chromatography and crystallization method were made by FTIR, NMR and HRMS techniques.The cytotoxic and genotoxic potentials of the novel compounds (7a-e) were evaluated at five different concentrations (6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 μM) using the Allium test system.As a result of cytogenetic analysis, it was determined that high concentrations of some hybrid compounds significantly reduced the number of divisions of A. cepa cells (cytotoxicity in 7a and 7c) and caused chromosomal abnormalities in dividing cells (genotoxicity in 7a, 7c, 7e, and especially 7d).