Cross-cultural differences in argumentation may be explained by the use of different norms of reasoning. However, some norms derive from, presumably universal, mathematical laws. This inconsistency can be resolved, by considering that some norms of argumentation, like Bayes theorem, are mathematical functions. Systematic variation in the inputs may produce culture-dependent inductive biases although the function remains invariant. This hypothesis was tested by fitting a Bayesian model to data on informal argumentation from Turkish and English cultures, which linguistically mark evidence quality differently. The experiment varied evidential marking and informant reliability in argumentative dialogues and revealed cross-cultural differences for both independent variables. The Bayesian model fitted the data from both cultures well but there were differences in the parameters consistent with culture-specific inductive biases. These findings are related to current controversies over the universality of the norms of reasoning and the role of normative theories in the psychology of reasoning.

Recent research comparing mental models theory and causal Bayes nets for their ability to account for discounting and augmentation inferences in causal conditional reasoning had some limitations. One of the experiments used an ordinal scale and multiple items and analysed the data by subjects and items. This procedure can create a variety of problems that can be resolved by using an appropriate cumulative link function mixed models approach in which items are treated as random effects. Experiment 1 replicated this earlier experiment and analysed the results using appropriate data analytic techniques. Although successfully replicating earlier research, the pattern of results could be explained by a much simpler "shallow encoding" hypothesis. Experiment 2 introduced a manipulation to critically test this hypothesis. The results favoured the causal Bayes nets predictions and not shallow encoding and were not consistent with mental models theory. Experiment 1 provided qualified support for the causal Bayes net approach using appropriate statistics because it also replicated the failure to observe one of the predicted main effects. Experiment 2 discounted one plausible explanation for this failure. While within the limited goals that were set for these experiments they were successful, more research is required to account for the pattern of findings using this paradigm.

Reasoning and decision making are error prone. This is often attributed to a fast, phylogenetically old System 1. It is striking, however, that perceptuo-motor decision making in humans and animals is rational. These results are consistent with perceptuo-motor strategies emerging in Bayesian brain theory that also appear in human data selection. People seem to have access, although limited, to unconscious generative models that can generalise to explain other verbal reasoning results. Error does not emerge predominantly from System 1, but rather seems to emerge from the later evolved System 2 that involves working memory and language. However language also sows the seeds of error correction by moving reasoning into the social domain. This reversal of roles suggests key areas of theoretical integration and new empirical directions.

Many studies in the recent past have determined that macrolide antibiotics have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity in addition to their efficacy in treating bacterial infection. Macrolides have been successfully used in the treatment of diverse chronic inflammatory respiratory disorders, including diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB), cystic fibrosis (CF) and bronchiolitis obliterans (BOS). We investigated the ability of azithromycin to attenuate the effects of a lymphocyte directed pro-inflammatory stimulus in PBMCs from healthy volunteers. Our results demonstrate that azithromycin significantly inhibited the induction of proliferation and the release of IL17 in these cells. Treatment with azithromycin in the absence of a pro-inflammatory stimulus in PBMCs induced the release of IL10 in a dose dependent manner 24 h after challenge. In the same model, azithromycin caused a dose dependent, bell-shaped release of GMCSF 24 h after treatment. In conclusion, azithromycin exhibits significant anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties and IL10 and GMCSF may prove to be useful biomarkers following macrolide therapy in respiratory disorders.