This study examined racial and ethnic disparities in child maltreatment reporting, Child Protective Services (CPS) decision-making, re-involvement, and foster care experiences in Illinois. Using tract-level regressions for all 2021 census tracts and individual-level logistic regressions for 153,850 reported children and 6,736 foster care entrants, we assessed key decision points. The Black-White disparity in report rates-nearly twofold unadjusted-was fully explained by neighborhood poverty and single-parent family rates, providing no empirical support for racially biased reporting. Latino children had consistently lower report rates than White children despite higher socioeconomic disadvantage, replicating the "Latino paradox." Among reported children, Black and other-race children generally had equal or lower odds than White children of substantiation, Intact Family Services (IFS), foster care placement, or re-involvement; Latino children showed slightly higher odds for substantiation and IFS. In foster care, non-White children were more likely to experience frequent placement disruptions and, for Black children, non-kin placements, but had no worse outcomes for distant placement, termination of parental rights, or permanency. Findings indicate disparities are front-loaded at the reporting stage, largely reflecting structural socioeconomic inequities rather than differential CPS treatment, underscoring the need for upstream poverty reduction and family support to advance child welfare equity.

This study examined whether eviction filings and judgements were associated with child maltreatment reports at the census-tract level in Illinois, overall, by maltreatment type, and by report source, as well as with subsequent stages of CPS involvement, including substantiations, service case openings, and foster care placements. We used nine years of administrative data (2010-2018) combining Eviction Lab's proprietary eviction filings and judgment records with Illinois CPS records. Given substantial variation in eviction and maltreatment patterns by rurality, we assessed differences across large urban, small urban, and rural areas. Using within- and betweentract models adjusted for sociodemographic factors, higher eviction filing and judgment rates were associated with increased maltreatment report rates, with the strongest associations observed in rural and small urban areas. Associations were most pronounced for neglect, though physical and sexual abuse reports were also substantially elevated. Contrary to the visibility bias hypothesis, eviction was not more strongly associated with reports from mandated reporters than from non-mandated reporters, suggesting the higher report rates may not be primarily due to increased mandated surveillance. Among reported cases, higher eviction rates were linked to greater substantiation and foster care placement probabilities in small urban areas, while findings in rural areas were mixed. These results indicate that eviction-related housing instability is consistently associated with multiple forms of maltreatment reporting and, in some contexts, deeper CPS involvement. Prevention policies should consider housing stability and rapid re-housing, with a particular attention to small urban and rural communities, to reduce maltreatment reports and subsequent CPS intervention.

This study examines how rurality relates to child maltreatment reports (CMRs) among the child population, child protective services (CPS) investigation decisions and re-involvement among children reported to CPS, and foster care services and outcomes among children enteringcare. Tract-level linear regressions assessed urban-rural differences in CMR rates among Illinoistracts in 2021 (N=3,248). Individual-level logistic regressions examined urban-rural differences in CPS investigation decisions and re-involvement among children reported to CPS (N=153,850) and foster care services and outcomes among children entering care (N=6,736). Small urban andrural tracts had higher CMR rates-26.6 and 33.7 per 1,000, respectively-than large urbantracts, even after controlling for a range of socioeconomic-demographic variables. Reported children in rural and small urban areas had greater odds of substantiation, service case opening,and foster care entry, as well as higher odds of re-involvement. Among children in care, those inrural areas were more likely to be placed farther from their families, and those in rural and smallurban areas faced higher risks of termination of parental rights. Geographic context strongly shapes CMR risks and subsequent CPS involvement and outcomes. Addressing these rural-urbaninequities requires recognizing geography as a structural determinant and developing place-based policy and resource strategies to promote equity.

The growing presence of Latino families in the U.S. child welfare system raises significant concerns regarding service adequacy. Utilizing data from the National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-being II (NSCAW II), this study investigates disparities in service needs, referrals, and receipts by ethnicity and nativity. While these data serve as a critical historical baseline for understanding the system prior to the major immigration policy shifts of the 2016–2020 era, our analysis reveals nuanced disparities. Compared to White families, foreign-born Latino families generally showed significantly lower service needs, supporting the "immigrant paradox". However, we identify a concerning "Domestic Violence Paradox": foreign-born Latino caregivers demonstrate significantly higher needs for domestic violence services (OR = 1.80, p < 0.05) yet experience lower service receipts for children’s behavioral and health problems. These findings underscore the need for targeted, culturally responsive interventions that address specific safety gaps while leveraging the resilience of immigrant families to ensure equitable support across the child welfare continuum. (Funding Declaration: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, or publication of this article.) Navigating Service Needs, Referrals, and Receipts for Latino Families in Child Protective Services

Research on sibling separation in foster care often focuses on cases where all siblings are removed. However, separation can also occur when only some children are placed in care, a scenario that is underexplored. This study investigates: the frequency of partial sibling placements; differences between placed and non-placed siblings, as well as split versus intact sibling groups; and the risk of re-report and future placement for non-placed children in split groups compared to those in intact groups. US child maltreatment report (CMR) and foster care caseload data are accessed from National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) and Adoption and Foster Care Reporting System (AFCARS). Sibling groups are assigned based on shared CMR in 2018. At least 27.4% of sibling groups, where at least one child is placed, are split. These groups have wide age ranges between children. Children in split groups left at home are at higher risk of placement than children in non-split groups.

We investigated whether poverty is primarily associated with neglect while showing weaker links to other forms of child maltreatment at the zip code level. To do this, we analyzed relationships between child poverty rates and maltreatment report rates for neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse across all Illinois zip codes from 2014 to 2018 (N = 1354). Our analysis showed that the unstandardized effect sizes for neglect were larger than those for physical and sexual abuse, primarily due to the higher prevalence of neglect reports, which leads to a larger absolute change. However, because unstandardized effect sizes are influenced by the prevalence of outcomes, they are not ideal for comparing the strength of relationships. In contrast, standardized effect sizes, which are not affected by outcome prevalence, were consistently strong and nearly identical across all maltreatment types. This indicates that the relationship between area-level poverty rates and maltreatment report rates is similarly strong for neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, rather than being notably stronger for neglect. Practically, this suggests that efforts to reduce child maltreatment in impoverished areas should encompass all types of abuse, rather than focusing primarily on neglect.

Given the strong link between poverty and child maltreatment, this study explores the impact of nine poverty-reduction policies-Childcare Subsidies, Child Tax Credits, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit, Housing Choice Voucher, Minimum Wage, Medicaid, Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)-on child maltreatment outcomes. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we reviewed studies published through June 2025 across five databases (EBSCO, ProQuest, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed), focusing on articles assessing policy expansions related to child maltreatment. After screening, 29 studies met our inclusion criteria. Broader expansions in programs, such as EITC, SNAP, Childcare Subsidies, Minimum Wage, and Medicaid, were generally associated with reductions in child maltreatment, particularly neglect, and, in some cases, physical abuse. Combined policy expansions were also linked to reduced maltreatment. In contrast, limited changes-such as more flexible redetermination procedures or copayment adjustments-had little effect unless introduced alongside broader eligibility expansions. Neglect appears more responsive to economic interventions, suggesting that other abuse types may require additional supports beyond income assistance. To maximize effectiveness, future efforts should expand proven programs and strengthen weaker ones through improved design and implementation. Even established programs require continued attention to equity, including administrative and geographic barriers limiting access for eligible families.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE:To generate more accurate estimates of the cumulative prevalence of child maltreatment reports and subsequent Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement in Illinois by identifying and adjusting for duplicate identifiers in administrative records. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING:Illinois children in 2023. METHODS:Using CPS records from the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (2003-2023), we applied the synthetic life table method to estimate cumulative probabilities of maltreatment reports, substantiations, Intact Family Services (IFS) openings, and foster care placements by age 18. We identified duplicate person IDs using Social Security Numbers (SSNs), available for approximately 31 % of records. For children without SSNs, we adjusted first-time event rates by aligning them with those of children with SSNs who shared similar age, race/ethnicity, and CPS involvement level. RESULTS:SSN-adjusted estimates indicate that 26.7 % of Illinois children are projected to be reported to CPS by age 18, compared to 50.0 % based on unadjusted data. The adjusted lifetime prevalence of substantiations was 13.0 %, IFS openings 5.3 %, and foster care placements 3.6 %. Racial disparities persisted: 52.8 % of Black children were projected to be reported to CPS, compared to 22.3 % of White and 22.2 % of Latino children. Disparities were smaller for foster care placements. CONCLUSION:Duplicate identifiers may substantially inflate estimates of CPS involvement. Even conservative, SSN-adjusted estimates suggest high cumulative exposure to CPS, particularly for Black children. These findings underscore the need for more reliable identifiers in CPS records and support ongoing efforts to reduce coercive system contact while expanding preventive and supportive services.

BACKGROUND:The Report and Placement Integrated Data System (RAPIDS) integrates two U.S. national data systems-NCANDS' child maltreatment report (CMR) records and AFCARS' foster care (FC) records-into a single longitudinal dataset spanning 2006-2021. This integration enables comprehensive child maltreatment analysis by linking the annual files from these previously separate systems. OBJECTIVE:To explore benefits of RAPIDS data in understanding CMR outcomes. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING:Children aged 0-10 years with CMRs in 2018 (N = 2,371,119). METHODS:Using logistic regression, we modeled five outcomes: two current outcomes from 2018 index reports (substantiation and foster care entry) and three future outcomes within two years (re-report, substantiated re-report, and foster are entry). For each outcome, we compared models using only index report data without RAPIDS variables against models incorporating RAPIDS-enabled variables that capture longitudinal patterns across reports, placements, and siblings. RESULTS:RAPIDS data improved model performance across all outcomes, with greater gains for future outcomes. Overall model fit (Tjur's R2) increased for substantiation (11.75 % → 12.53 %), FC entry (4.17 % → 6.38 %), rereport (0.94 % → 4.99 %), substantiated rereport (1.04 % → 3.31 %), and future FC entry (0.85 % → 2.51 %). Predictive performance also improved: at 80 % sensitivity, specificity increased for substantiation (54 % → 56 %), FC entry (52 % → 58 %), rereport (27 % → 36 %), substantiated rereport (33 % → 42 %), and future FC entry (37 % → 49 %). Additionally, RAPIDS data enabled analysis of a wider array of predictors and their associations with outcomes, fully utilizing national longitudinal CMR and FC records. CONCLUSIONS:RAPIDS data enhance explanatory power and predictive accuracy, enabling nationwide, longitudinal analysis of CMR and FC records and offering valuable insights into risk and protective factors.

BackgroundResearch shows that families involved with Child Protective Services (CPS) have diverse needs not fully met by service referrals and provision. Furthermore, it is still unknown whether the service provision gaps are linked to child safety and permanency outcomes.Objective:This study aims to address this research gap by evaluating the rereport and foster care entry outcomes of child welfare services based on the needs, referrals, and receipt of services for families involved with CPS.Participant and Setting:The National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-being II (NSCAW II) was used for this study, excluding children with prior reports and those in foster care to focus on re-report and foster care entry outcomes, reducing the sample from 5,872 to 2,580 children.Methods:Logistic Regression analyses were performed to investigate the relationship between services needed, referred, and receipts and child welfare outcomes. The analyses were structured into three sets of models to explore different aspects of service engagement and its impact on child welfare outcomes.Results:Our study shows that specific CPS services, particularly caregivers' needs for mental health and substance misuse services, significantly impact the likelihood of re-reporting and foster care placements.Conclusion:Most families contacting the child welfare system receive only case management services if their report moves beyond investigation. Such an approach requires that services are available, acceptable, and of sufficient quality to meet needs. This paper highlights crucial disparities in service needs, referrals, and receipts among families engaged with CPS.

This observational ecological study examined county-level associations between evidence-based home visiting (EHV) provisions and child maltreatment report (CMR) rates, using national county-level data from 2016–2018. We found that longitudinal changes of EHV provisions were significantly negatively associated with county CMR rates while controlling for potential confounders. Our model estimated that after EHV provisions were launched in counties, their CMR rates decreased (or after they were ceased, rates increased) by 2.21 per 1000 children overall, 2.88 per 1000 children aged 0–5, 2.59 per 1000 children aged 6–11, 2.13 per 1000 male children, and 2.24 per 1000 female children. When limiting attention to EHV provisions funded by the Maternal, Infant and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) program, we found no significant association perhaps because MIECHV-funded EHV provisions were a small subset of all EHV provisions. These findings propose potential protective impacts of county EHV provisions on overall county CMR rates. Yet, the small effect sizes suggest that EHV provisions should be considered as a part of a complete response to child maltreatment rather than in isolation. Given that EHV is provided to a very small part of the population, nevertheless, our findings suggest that expanding coverage would increase effect sizes.

Purpose: The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) Child File, the only national dataset cataloging child maltreatment reports. It includes variables representing economic distress frequently used in published research. At the national level, these variables are demonstrably implausible, substantially underestimating economic distress. Method: This paper reviews recent work using these variables, analyzes the NCANDS data directly, demonstrates why the economic variables in NCANDS are unusable at a national level, and provides recommendations for incorporating economic measures using NCANDS. Results: We find 19 articles that have used these variables within the past 10 years. Most states provide implausible estimates. Economic measures can be incorporated into NCANDS data by either subsetting to s states with plausible estimates of these variables in given years, or appending county-level economic Census data. Discussion: Without addressing these variables' issues in plausibility, use of them will yield biased estimates.

This study includes a scoping review of prior studies investigating the effects of policy changes on child poverty rates. It further conducts an empirical analysis to estimate the relationship between child poverty rates and child maltreatment report (CMR) rates, utilizing national county-level data. The study then calculates the indirect effects of policy changes on CMR rates, mediated through child poverty rates, by integrating information from previous studies with its own empirical findings. Among the policy changes explored in prior studies, those related to a child allowance and a fully refundable Child Tax Credit demonstrate the largest indirect effects but also the highest costs. The expansion of in-kinds and near-cash benefits, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits and housing vouchers, shows moderate effects with moderate costs. Tax credits like the Earned Income Tax Credit exhibit lower effects and costs when targeted at the lowest earners, and moderate effects and costs for broader expansion. Focused tax credits, such as the Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit, had lower effects and costs, even if made fully refundable. Despite certain limitations, the study's approach yields consistent estimates with a recent simulation study, indicating its potential validity. While some proposed policy changes may seem expensive, implementing them is anticipated to substantially reduce CMR rates, with the benefits outweighing the associated costs. Overall, the findings suggest that addressing child poverty to reduce CMRs is an attractive strategy with numerous potential benefits.

Objective: Foster care is surprisingly commonplace in the United States, with more than one in twenty children experiencing placement in their lifetimes. Due to the complexity of foster care (e.g. age at contact, length of stay), we still lack a clear idea of how children move through the child welfare system. We pose the question, "do distinct typologies of system trajectories exist that may be used to inform policy analyses? " Methods: We used child maltreatment reports and foster care case records for all U.S. children born in FY2006 and placed in care between birth and age 15. Using sequence analysis, we classified child-level system trajectories into distinct clusters. Then, we employed multilevel multinomial regression to explore child and system characteristics associated with each. Results: Three typologies were identified: 1) early-entry-exit, 2) school-age-entry, and 3) late-entry. Early-entry-exit cases typically entered and left foster care before turning three, were frequently adopted, and had little ongoing system contact. School-age-entry children typically entered between ages 5 -10, were in care for the shortest amount of time, and mostly exited to reunification. Late-entry children typically entered between ages 9 -11, entered with substantial CPS history and remained in care into mid-adolescence. Conclusions: Our findings provide the first description of foster care trajectories in the US. Both practice and policy formulation can benefit from these empirically supported descriptions. Using such trajectory typologies, researchers can now explore how trajectories may predict wellbeing outcomes. We discuss how the differences among the typologies may inform identification of service needs and outcomes.

Child neglect is a multidimensional concept encompassing various forms. Prior studies suggest that risk factors differ by neglect subtypes such as physical or supervisory neglect, but few studies address how risk factors vary between other neglect subtypes. This study aimed to examine how risk factors were related to neglect subtypes such as physical neglect, lack of supervision, exposure to domestic violence, substance-abusing parent, and mixed neglect. This study used secondary data from a nationally representative sample of children (National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being-II, N = 5,872), and 786 children with a first-time child protective services investigation for neglect allegations alone were selected. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to explore how individual, family, and community risk factors may be associated with specific neglect subtypes. Five risk factors were able to discriminate between subtypes of neglect. For example, being a young child is associated with a greater risk of experiencing multiple forms of neglect. Caregiver's mental health problem is associated with a higher likelihood of being referred for multiple forms of neglect, particularly as compared with the risk of being referred for lack of supervision. Having poor social support is associated with a higher risk of physical neglect, and caregiver high stress is related to a higher risk of domestic violence. While most intervention programs target risk factors for overall child neglect, not specific neglect subtypes cases, our findings suggest that the intervention approach based on an understanding of the heterogeneity in risk factors between neglect subtypes is advisable. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Current literature suggests that food insecurity increases child maltreatment risk. Yet, existing evidence is limited to individual-level associations among low-income, high-risk populations based on local, mostly urban data. This study aims to generalize prior findings to community-level associations in general populations, using national data including all urban-rural areas. We examined, for the first time, if food insecurity rates increase child maltreatment report (CMR) rates at the county level after controlling for potential confounders. We examined both within-community longitudinal changes (i.e., within-effects) and inter-community differences (i.e., between-effects) of food insecurity rates and their associations with CMR rates. We also examined differences by age, sex, race/ethnicity, maltreatment type, and urbanicity. We constructed longitudinal county-level data by linking multiple national databases, including all substantiated and unsubstantiated CMR records, the Map the Meal Gap's community food insecurity estimates, and Census data. The data covered over 96% of U.S. counties from 2009 to 2018. For analysis, we used within-between random effects models. Regarding between-effects, we found that in inter-community comparisons, higher food insecurity rates were significantly associated with increased CMR rates. This association was consistent by age, sex, maltreatment type, and urbanicity. For within-effects, we found that the association between longitudinal changes of food insecurity rates and CMR rates significantly differed by urbanicity. Specifically, longitudinal increases of food insecurity rates significantly increased CMR rates among large urban counties, but not among small urban and rural counties. Study findings highlight the importance of conducting further research to better understand the mechanisms through which food insecurity impact child maltreatment at both individual and community levels. Our community-level findings from general populations especially have significant implications for community-based programs and large-scale policies to achieve population-level impact on child well-being.

This study examines the relationship between child care availability and child maltreatment reports (CMRs) at the zip code level in Illinois from 2011 to 2018. Contrary to expectations, the results reveal a lack of significant association between child care availability and CMR rates. In some cases, increased child care availability even coincided with higher CMR rates, challenging the notion of child care as a protective factor against child maltreatment. The study identifies key methodological issues, including a broad assessment of child care availability for all children aged 0-5, regardless of parental employment status. Additionally, the research focused solely on residential neighborhoods, overlooking potential child care use in adjacent areas or workplaces. The study did not consider various alternative child care options, such as preschools or informal arrangements, which may impact licensed child care services. Moreover, the density of childcare centers and their potential surveillance effects were not thoroughly explored. Future research should address these limitations to provide more robust insights into the interplay between child care availability and child maltreatment.

U.S. Latino and foreign-born populations show lower child maltreatment report (CMR) rates despite their low socioeconomic positions, perhaps due to protective cultural factors within these populations. However, discriminatory Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) activities may attenuate such protection. We examined how ethnic and foreign-born compositions and local ICE activities were associated with community CMR rates, overall and within racial/ethnic groups (i.e., White, Black, Latino), and how these associations changed over time. We used national county-level data linking multiple administrative/archival data sources (i.e., CMR, Census, and ICE data) longitudinally for 2015 to 2018 across the United States. Multilevel (county-years, counties, and states) models estimated how percentages of Latino, percentages of foreign-born, and ICE arrest rates were related to overall and race/ethnicity-specific CMR rates among counties while adjusting for a range of demographic, socioeconomic, child care burden, health insurance, residential mobility, and urbanicity factors. Higher percentages of foreign-born residents within counties were significantly associated with lower CMR rates, both overall and within all racial/ethnic groups. These protective associations became significantly stronger over the study period. Higher percentages of Latino residents were significantly associated with lower total and White CMR rates but not with Black or Latino CMR rates. The interaction between the percentage of Latino residents and year was not significant. ICE arrest rates showed no significant associations with CMR rates. Our findings suggest that communities with more foreign-born and Latino residents may be more protective against CMRs. While the foreign-born and Latino concentrations were both independently predictive of decreased CMR rates, the protective associations of the foreign-born concentration were more consistent within racial/ethnic groups and grew stronger over time. These findings suggest the need to investigate community-level protective mechanisms that may explain these results. The null findings for ICE activity also require further research with alternative measures of discriminatory state action.

Background: Poverty is among the most powerful predictors of child maltreatment risk and reporting. To date, however, there have been no studies assessing the stability of this relationship over time.Objective: To examine whether the county-level relationship between child poverty rates and child maltreatment report (CMR) rates changed over time in the United States in 2009-2018, overall and across of child age, sex, race/ethnicity, and maltreatment type. Participants and setting: U.S. Counties in 2009-2018.Methods: Linear multilevel models estimated this relationship and its longitudinal change, while controlling for potential confounding variables.Results: We found that the county-level relationship between child poverty rates and CMR rates had intensified almost linearly from 2009 to 2018. Per one-percentage-point increase in child poverty rates, CMR rates significantly increased by 1.26 per 1000 children in 2009 and by 1.74 per 1000 children in 2018, indicating an almost 40 % increase in the poverty-CMR relationship. This increasing trend was also found within all subgroups of child age and sex. This trend was found among White and Black children, but not among Latino children. This trend was strong among neglect reports, weaker among physical abuse reports, and not found among sexual abuse reports.Conclusions: Our findings highlight the continued, perhaps increasing importance of poverty as a predictor of CMR. To the degree that our findings can be replicated, they could be interpreted as supporting an increased emphasis on reducing child maltreatment incidents and reports through poverty amelioration efforts and the provision of material family supports.