As the demand for livestock products increases, and is expected to continue to increase over the next few decades, especially in developing countries, smallholder mixed systems are becoming more intensive. However, with limited land and water resources and concern about the environmental impact of agricultural practices and climate change, the challenge is to find ways of increasing productivity that do not compromise household food security, but rather increase incomes equitably and sustain or enhance the natural resource base. In developed countries there has been increased specialisation of crop and livestock production. In contrast, the majority of livestock in developing countries is kept in mixed crop/livestock systems. Crops (cereal grains and pulses) and crop residues provide the basis of the diet for animals, e.g. cereal straw fed to dairy cattle or sweet potato vines fed to pigs. Animal manure can provide significant nutrient inputs to crops. Water productivity is higher in mixed crop/livestock systems compared with growing crops alone. Mixed systems allow for a more flexible and profitable use of family labour where employment opportunities are limited. They also spread risks across several enterprises, a consideration in smallholder systems that may become even more important under certain climate change scenarios. Integrated crop/livestock systems can play a significant role in improving global food security but will require appropriate technological developments, institutional arrangements and supportive policy environments if they are to fulfil that potential in the coming decades.

This study investigates the status, estimates the cost, and identifies the determinants of compliance with food safety measures in milk production in India. The study is based on the cross section primary data collected at the farm level in 3 states of India, namely, Bihar, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh, in the year 2007. These states capture the geographical and institutional diversity of milk production and marketing in the country. The study shows that the status of compliance with food safety measures at the dairy farm level is not encouraging and a lot of efforts are needed to bridge this gap. The adoption intensity of food safety practices shows wide inter- and intraregional variations. This intensity depicts a positive relationship with herd size. The additional cost of compliance with food milk safety measures reveals an inverse relationship with herd size. The adoption intensity of food safety practices has been found to be influenced by the dairy farmers' characteristics. Herd size, education level, expertise in dairying, and integration of dairy farmers with modern milk supply chain have positive influence on the adoption intensity of food safety practices at the farm level. The positive relationship between adoption intensity of food safety measures and farmers' realization of milk price would influence farmers for greater adoption of these measures. KEYWORDS: adoptioncost of compliancedairy farmersfood safety measures Notes Landless (without any land), Marginal (≤1 ha), Small (>1 ≤ 2 ha), Medium (>2 ≤ 4 ha), Large (>4 ha). Additional informationNotes on contributorsAnjani KumarAnjani Kumar is Principal Scientist (Agricultural Economics) at National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi, India.Iain A. WrightIain A. Wright is International Livestock Research Institute's Regional Representative for Asia based at New Delhi, India.Dhiraj K. SinghDhiraj K. Singh is Scientific Officer in Asia Office of International Livestock Research Institute based at New Delhi, India.

There is growing interest in the environmental benefits of grazing by cattle, yet little information is available regarding the levels of production that might be achieved on semi-natural rough grazing (SNRG). The overall aim of this research was to assess the performance of native and 'improved' breeds of cattle when grazing grass/clover swards and SNRG in order to explore potential genotype x nutritional environment interactions. This paper reports the findings of three experiments conducted over three years. The first experiment assessed the performance of autumn-born Welsh Black (WB) and Charolais cross (CX) cattle aged approximately 9 months when grazing ryegrass/white clover-dominated improved permanent pasture (PP) and Molinia caerulea-dominated SNRG. Both genotype and pasture type had significant effects on liveweight gain. with growth rates higher for WB steers than CX steers (P<0.001) and higher on the improved pasture than on the SNRG (P<0.001). The second experiment was conducted the following summer when the steers were 20 months old and evaluated the effects of breed and pasture type on subsequent finishing performance, carcass composition, meat quality, flavour and fatty acid composition. Genotype had no effect on liveweight gain during the grazing period, but pasture type again had a highly significant effect on growth rate (P<0.001). Carcass conformation was good and similar for both breeds. Pasture type had a greater effect on fatty acid composition of the meat than did breed. Likewise, genotype had no effect on meat colour or stability, whereas pasture type affected both. Loin steaks from the SNRG-grazed animals had significantly more vitamin E than those from PP-grazed animals (P<0.001) and this was reflected in lower lipid oxidation (TBARS) after simulated retail display (P<0.001). The third experiment assessed the performance of spring-born Welsh Black and Limousin cross steers aged 14 months when grazing PP and SNRG. Again only pasture type had a highly significant effect on growth rate (P<0.001). Measurements made during the first two experiments using automatic behaviour recorders indicated that pasture type influenced grazing behaviour to a greater degree than breed. and sward measurements found no between-breed differences in utilisation of M. caerulea. Overall the results indicate that the type of sward grazed has a greater influence on animal performance and meat quality than breed type when beef cattle are produced in Less Favoured Areas. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Previous experiments have shown that mixed or conjoint grazing, when two or more animal species are grazed together, can lead to improved performance of one or more of the species and a higher total output per unit area. Sequential grazing systems, when different animal species graze an area in succession, also have the potential to improve productivity. This experiment directly compared these two approaches for integrating the grazing of cattle and sheep when pastured on improved permanent pasture. Four treatments were compared: 1) sheep only from May to October (S/S); 2) cattle only from May to July followed by sheep only from August to October (C/S); 3) cattle and sheep from May to July, sheep only for the rest of the growing season (C+S/S); and 4) cattle and sheep from May to October (C+S/C+S). Each treatment was replicated three times. From May until weaning at the end of July the plots were grazed by steers and ewes and lambs, and from weaning until October by steers and lambs. Sward heights were maintained at 6 cm using a "put and take" stocking system. Animal performance and sward composition data were collected during three growing seasons, 2001-2003. During the pre-weaning period lambs grazing plots which were grazed only by sheep had significantly poorer growth rates than those grazing plots where there was mixed grazing. Lambs grazing the sheep only plots also had lower liveweight gain during the post-weaning period, with the highest growth rates being recorded on the C+S/C+S treatment. Carrying capacity and total liveweight gain per unit area post-weaning were also consistently higher for the C+S/C+S treatment, while carrying capacity pre-weaning was highest for the C/S treatment. Measurements of clover content in the grazed horizon and botanical separation of material from quadrat cuts indicated that even under relatively controlled conditions choice of grazing system can influence sward composition. However, there was no clear link between any single sward change and the growth of the animals, indicating that the improved performance of cattle and sheep under mixed grazing is the result of a combination of factors, rather than a response to a particular sward parameter. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A survey of 59 small-holder households was used to gather information about livestock production within a small-holder farming system in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. A broader survey of 130 households was used to gather information about cropping patterns, and access to off-farm employment and educational opportunities. The aim was to provide a description of the livestock production system in the Northern Areas and investigate the effect of agro-ecological zone and proximity to transport infrastructure on small-holder practices, especially those relating to livestock management. Two transects were selected for study differing in the quality of their transport infrastructure; the Karakoram Highway transect was defined by the Karakoram Highway, a major transport link through the study region, while the Gilgit–Ghizer Region transect lay along a side valley with a more limited transport infrastructure. One village from each of the three main agro-ecological zones within the region was selected in each transport infrastructure transect. Results showed that average landholding size was 1.6ha of which around 60% was cultivated. Overall herd size did not differ significantly by zone or transect but there were more animals derived from cross-breeding with exotic breeds in the Karakoram Highway transect. The amount of fodder stored for livestock was higher in the Karakoram Highway transect than in the Gilgit–Ghizer Region transect. There was more selling of livestock in the Gilgit–Ghizer Region transect and the use of draught animals was also more prevalent in the Gilgit–Ghizer Region. The household questionnaire indicated that cash cropping, off-farm employment and degree of formal education were all higher in the Karakoram Highway transect, providing indirect evidence for a household economy less reliant on traditional livestock keeping for income. In conclusion, the survey results reveal a traditional small-holder system with heavy reliance on livestock. Householders in the lower altitude zones and those close to transport infrastructure appear to rely less heavily on livestock for income but have fodder resources which are more appropriate for their complement of livestock.

This paper covers goats productive aspect of bigger multi-sectoral research study conducted during 199 9 - 2001. A 2 x 3 factorial design in Genstat program was used to check whether developed infrastructure (transect at 2 level) and agro-ecological zones at 3 levels has significant effect on the performance of goats. Parameters such as changes in body conditio n score (BCS), abortion, birth weight and growth rate performances were compared in relation to winter stored offered resources in both transects. Higher (33%) feed sufficiency in terms of the Metabolisabl e Energy (ME) for live weight maintenance in the st ored feed in the Karakorum Highway (KKH) transect compared to the Gilgit Ghizer Region (GGR) transect (P < 0.05). Resul ts revealed that an overall one unit increase in feed sufficiency could reduce abortion by 8 % in the goat flocks (R 2 = 0.42). Goats in the GGR transect showed less abortion under severe sub-main tenance levels of Metabolisable Energy (ME) compared to the KKH transect where does lost more foetuses under sub-maintenance feeding but improved when ME supply approached their requirements. Results further revealed that goats BCS significant ly influenced birth weight of kids (P<0.001), but t he relationship did not differ by transect. However regression analysis worthily s howed that a unit increase in the dam BCS increase d weights at birth in offspring by about 1.08 kg (R 2 = 0.85). Percent liveweight loss in goats was sign ificantly (25%) greater in the GGR transect than in the KKH transect during 150 days of winter (P < 0.05). Percent weight loss of mature goats was not significantly influenced by cropping zone (P= 0.079), but goats in the single c ropping zone (SCZ) tended to lose 7 % more weight than goats in the double cropping zone (DCZ). Productive parameters generally did not differ between transect but the significa ntly (P< 0.05) higher feed sufficiency in the KKH gave animals significant pot ential to productive and reproductive performance i n response to the more abundant feed resource per animal in this transect.

Management systems for finishing beef cattle, designed to meet environmental goals in the Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) of the UK, often rely on the integration of grazing of semi-natural pastures with sown permanent pasture. In this experiment, three management options were compared: (i) permanent pasture for grazing and silage production (treatment PP), (ii) permanent pasture for grazing and silage and grazing of Molinia-dominant semi-natural pasture in summer from June to August inclusively (treatment PP + SNP) and (iii) permanent pasture for grazing and silage and red clover (RC) silage for 0.25 of the silage requirement in winter (treatment PP + RC). The performance of spring-born Welsh Black steers was measured from turnout in spring 2002 until finishing in summer 2003. During summer 2002, the liveweight gain of steers grazing the semi-natural pasture was significantly lower than that of steers grazing the permanent pasture. There was a trend for the liveweight gains of the steers on the PP + SNP treatment to be higher from housing in autumn 2002, and live weights on all treatments were similar at the start of the red clover-feeding phase. Steers offered red clover silage had a significantly higher liveweight gains than those offered grass silage, but there was only a trend for a higher live weight at the end of the winter-feeding period. During summer 2003, liveweight gains were again higher on the permanent pasture. Finishing system significantly affected the fatty-acid profile of the meat produced, but there was no difference in the colour of meat in relation to shelf-life. Lipid oxidation was less for the meat from steers on the PP + SNP treatment than on the PP treatment, which, in turn, was less than for meat from the steers on the PP + RC treatment, and was in inverse proportion to the vitamin E concentration in the loin muscle. There were no significant differences in sensory panel scores for texture, juiciness or flavour of the meat.

We present a model of household decision-making in Kazakhstan. Traditionally, long-distance livestock migration of livestock occurred in Kazakhstan's rangelands, exploiting seasonal differences in forage availability. After independence, the rural economy collapsed and migrations stopped. We use multi-agent system modelling to examine trade-offs in allocation of wealth between capital and flocks. Winter forage availability is the key determinant of overall livestock numbers, while availability and price of winter fodder is an important determinant of livestock sector productivity. Seasonal migrations are only likely to reestablish if distant pastures have very poor winter forage. Otherwise, as total flock size increases, larger herds are predicted to settle away from villages. These predictions match field observations.

An experiment was conducted to examine the effects of mixed grazing of sheep plus cattle under continuous stocking of permanent pasture at different sward heights. The experiment had a 2x3 factorial design, with two sward surface heights (4-5 and 8-10 cm) and three combinations of animal species viz., sheep only, cattle only and sheep plus cattle. There were two replicate plots of each treatment combination and the experiment was conducted over 2 years consecutively. The sheep were Beulah Speckled Face ewes and their single Suffolk-cross lambs while the cattle were yearling Charolais-cross steers. Six 'core' steers and six 'core' ewes and their lambs grazed plots, as appropriately, while additional, non-experimental steers and ewes and their lambs were used to maintain sward heights. Each year the steers and the ewes grazed the pastures from May to October, while lambs were weaned and removed each year from the experiment in July. There was no significant effect of mixed grazing on live-weight gain of steers, but ewes had significantly higher live-weight gains on the sheep plus cattle treatment than on the sheep-only treatment (82 v. 61 g/day; P < 0.001). The live-weight gain of the lambs was higher on the mixed grazing treatment than on the sheep only treatment on the 8-10 cm sward height treatment (243 v. 212 g/day; P < 0.05) but there was no significant difference on the 4-5 cm sward height treatment (260 v. 250 g/day; P > 0.05). The total output of live-weight gain per ha from steers, ewes and lambs was not significantly affected by animal species combination. It is concluded that while output per ha is not enhanced by mixed grazing by sheep and cattle when sward height is controlled, the live-weight gain of ewes is increased and the live-weight gain of lambs can be increased on taller swards.

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The Northern Areas of Pakistan form a mountainous, semi-arid region in which subsistence mixed farming is the predominant economic activity for the majority of the population, which numbers around 1 million. Following a period of relative isolation, construction of the Karakoram Highway and the ensuing development activity have been catalysts for rapid infrastructural and social change over the last two decades. In the study reported here, feed resources for the livestock enterprise, which is largely made up of cattle, goats and sheep, were studied in detail over the course of a single winter feeding season. Productive outputs including liveweight change, milk production and reproductive performance were also quantified over a full year. The aim of the study was to provide a quantitative description of the system and to assess the extent to which proximity to a major highway influenced livestock husbandary. Six villages across the region were selected for study as part of a 2×3 factorial design with one village per cell of the study design. Factors consisted of two geographical transects and three agro-ecological zones. Transects were the Karakoram Highway (KKH) transect which enjoyed relatively good transport infrastructure and the Gilgit Ghizer Region (GGR) transect where infrastructure was more limited. Agro-ecological zones were the single, transitional and double cropping zones. One village per transect from each of the three main agro-ecological zones was chosen for study with 6–7 households within each village studied. Results showed that feed resources per household did not vary significantly according to transect or zone but cattle numbers per household were higher in the GGR transect than in the KKH transect indicating a heavier reliance on subsistence livestock production in this transect. Live weight and body condition of livestock in the Northern Areas changed markedly over the annual cycle. Losses of live weight were in the order of 10% over winter while summer gains during the summer season averaged 35% of initial live weight. There were differences between transects, with animals in the KKH gaining less weight in summer but showing higher milk yield (in cattle) and better reproductive performance. The results indicate a typical system of smallholder livestock production with heavy reliance on cereal by-products, a mix of livestock species and a relative scarcity of stored feed resources relative to overall livestock holdings. This study also suggests that proximity to the main highway running through the Northern Areas is associated with a reduced but more feed-efficient livestock production system.

This paper presents a scenario-based analysis of the impacts of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform for upland agriculture using a Welsh case-study. Specifically the paper examines the impacts of the introduction of the single-farm payment (SFP), the modulation of direct payments under Pillar I of the CAP and the increase in agri-environment payments under Pillar II. Three enterprises are examined, upland sheep rearing with lamb finishing, spring- and autumn-calving suckler-cattle with calf rearing. These enterprises are modelled under conditions in 2002/3, 2004/5 and for the reformed CAP in 2005/6. To support this analysis a livestock system model (LSM) was implemented. The model assesses alternative management regimen using a flexible state-transition approach. This simplifies the realisation and parameterisation of potentially complex management regimen. The model tracks fodder requirements to achieve targets based on defined diets. The LSM underpins whole-farm analyses of stocking-rates, labour and other resource requirements and net-farm income. From the case study the paper concludes that the impacts of the introduction of the CAP reform on the financial performance of the systems are small but negative (a net reduction of around 5% in support). The larger reduction in direct payments (15–18%) is partially offset by agri-environment measures. The paper concludes that while SFP encourages a more market-oriented outlook, the adaptive capacity within systems as they stand is very limited. There are a range of possible adaptation strategies, but for the uplands the extensification of cattle systems by reducing stock numbers and cutting back on labour seems most probable.

Seasonal and spatial fluctuations in forage quality, accessibility and output provide strong incentives for migratory stock keeping in Central Asia. Over the past century, mobile livestock husbandry has either been suppressed or collapsed and a fragmented pattern of rangeland use has ensued. Policy shifts underlying these processes in Kazakstan are traced. New patterns are evident whereby some flocks are again being moved by season to different pastures. In the market economy, individual families now decide on the costs and benefits of moving their animals. Results are reported from a multidisciplinary study of two rangeland areas in Kazakstan, including a survey of 46 households interviewed quarterly during 2001–2002 and community-level analyses of grazing patterns. Flock mobility is considered in terms of flock size and household assets of labour and capital. For most households in the study sites, movement is neither economically attractive nor absolutely necessary. Having enough resources is not a sufficient condition for moving. Other factors that bear upon the decision to move include the degree of grazing pressure around the shepherds' home base. In heavily stocked areas, even small-scale producers are finding ways of moving their animals. In isolated or abandoned areas where forage is plentiful, movement can be minimised even for large flocks. Keywords: HISTORYHOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICSPASTURE PRODUCTIVITYPOLICY

Livestock systems in hill and upland areas of the UK are characterised by extensive grazing, mainly by sheep and beef cattle. These areas also represent some of the most valued semi-natural habitats and landscapes in the country, with many areas being the subject to any number of a range of types of designation. This paper explores how, within upland systems, livestock can be integrated with their environment to achieve both agricultural and environmental objectives.

This paper investigates the genetic control of the resistance of goats to nematode parasites, and relationships between resistance and production traits. The data set comprised faecal egg counts (FECs) measured on 830 naturally challenged (predominant species Teladorsagia circumcincta), crossbred cashmere-producing goats over 5 years (1993-1997) and production traits (fibre traits and live weight) on 3100 goats from the same population in Scotland, over 11 years (1987-1997). Egg counts comprised repeated measurements (4 to 11) taken at 12 to 18 months of age and production traits, i.e. live weight and fibre traits, were measured at approximately 5 months of age. The goats for which FECs were available were subdivided into a line selected for decreased FECs, using the geometric mean FEC across the measurement period and goats not selected on the basis of FECs, acting as controls. The selected line had significantly lower FECs, compared with the control, in 4 out of 5 years (back transformed average proportional difference of 0.23). The heritability of a single FEC measurement (after cubic root transformation) was 0.17 and the heritability of the mean FEC was 0.32. The heritabilities; of the fibre traits were moderate to high with the majority in excess of 0.5. The heritability of live weight was 0.22. Genetic correlations between FECs and production traits were slightly positive but not significantly different from zero. Phenotypic and environmental correlations were very close to zero with the environmental correlations always being negative. It is concluded that selection for reduced FEC is possible for goats. Benefits of such selection will be seen when animals are kept for more than 1 year of productive life.