Background Interpretation of cognitive impairment (CI) in persons with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) is limited by discrepancies between objective and subjective evaluation. Objectives Evaluate relationships between subjective and objective cognitive measures, accounting for contributors. Methods Multiple Sclerosis Neuropsychological Questionnaire (MSNQ), patient-reported outcomes, Processing Speed Test (PST), Rey Auditory Verbal Learning (RAVLT), Visual Memory Test (VMT), Face Emotion Recognition (FER), Corsi, and Flanker test scores were collected. Spearman correlations, diagnostic metrics, and latent profile analysis assessed associations and cognitive phenotypes. Results In 83 PwMS, only 4.8–15.7% showed objective domain-specific CI, yet 42.2% reported significant CI. However, 51.8% had objective impairment in ≥1 domain. Compared with PwMS without objective or subjective CI, those with subjective but no objective CI had higher Hospital Anxiety Depression Scale-A (9.92 vs. 4.83) and D (8.23 vs. 2.88), and Fatigue Severity Scale (5.56 vs. 3.80) scores, p < 0.05. Latent profile analysis identified a performant cluster (C1, n = 36) and a less performant cluster (C2, n = 46) with higher mean z-scores on PST (0.46 vs. −0.70), VMT (0.32 vs. −0.54), RAVLT (0.99 vs. −0.06), and FER (0.57 vs. −0.80), p < 0.005, in C1. The MSNQ scores were similar between clusters. Conclusion A discrepancy between subjective and objective CI is observed. Subjective CI is associated with anxiety, depression, and fatigue. Multidomain testing and assessment of contributors may help reconcile this discrepancy.

Objective: Compared to other components of social cognition, knowledge of social norms has received less attention in the scientific literature. While social cognitive and semantic memory deficits appear early in the course of Alzheimer's disease (AD), no study has examined knowledge of social norms at earlier stages of the disease. In addition, it is unclear whether the knowledge of social norms in AD is associated with socioemotional deficits, as may be seen in the behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). Method: This study included 136 participants with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI), 134 with AD, most of whom were younger than 65 years, 280 with bvFTD, and 361 older healthy controls (HC). All participants were selected from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC). They completed the Social Norms Questionnaire (SNQ), which assesses the tendency to break or overadhere to social norms. They also completed tests assessing executive, semantic, and socioemotional functions. Results: Between-group comparisons showed that individuals with AD and aMCI made significantly more Break and Overadhere errors than HC, while they demonstrated better social norms knowledge than individuals with bvFTD. In aMCI and AD, social norms overadherence errors were most consistently associated with executive functioning. In bvFTD, semantic memory was the most consistent correlate across all SNQ variables. Conclusions: These findings may help clinicians and researchers better understand social cognitive changes in patients, support the inclusion of social norms knowledge assessment within broader neuropsychological evaluations, and provide complementary insight into the cognitive correlates of social knowledge loss in major neurocognitive disorders.

Objective Although verbal memory decline has been consistently reported following surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy, especially when surgery is performed in the language-dominant hemisphere and targets mesial temporal structures, the relation between the location and the hemisphere of surgery on visuospatial memory, as well as the factors predicting visuospatial memory decline, remains less clear. This study first examines the impact of epilepsy surgery location and laterality on visuospatial and verbal memory performance and then explores the predictors of memory change following surgery.Methods We retrospectively collected data from 75 individuals who completed the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test as part of their pre- and post-surgical neuropsychological assessments at our center.Results Surgery for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy in the dominant hemisphere was associated with poorer performance on all memory outcomes, whereas mesial temporal lobe epilepsy surgery in the non-dominant hemisphere selectively impaired delayed recall of visuospatial material. A presurgical memory profile combining better visuospatial memory and poorer verbal memory, and the recurrence of seizures after surgery, best predicted visuospatial memory decline after the procedure, whereas verbal memory decline was predicted by better preoperative verbal memory performance in addition to surgery in the dominant hemisphere.Significance These findings emphasize the relevance of considering presurgical visuospatial and verbal memory performance when attempting to predict visuospatial memory decline following surgery. Limitations to our study include potential selection bias, variability in testing parameters, and a relatively small sample size.

OBJECTIVE:The present study provides normative data for adapted versions of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and the Logical Memory subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scales - 3rd edition (WMS-III-LM), involving both recall and recognition procedures after a 2-week delay to assess accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF). The study also aims to achieve a clinical validation of these tests in a group of people with epilepsy (PWE). METHODS:A total of 124 (18-55 years old) healthy participants and 30 PWE undergoing presurgical monitoring for drug-resistant seizures completed these tasks. Associations between memory performance and sociodemographic, neuropsychological function, and testing factors were examined among healthy participants. Memory performance was compared between healthy and PWE groups, with special attention to forgetting rates over 2 weeks as a measure of long-term consolidation. RESULTS:Contrarily to raw recall and recognition performance, forgetting rates over 2 weeks were not significantly modulated by age or sex. As expected, higher forgetting rates and a greater prevalence of ALF were found among PWE compared with healthy participants on both tests. SIGNIFICANCE:This study offers useful normative data to assess ALF in PWE and provides clinical evidence that our adapted tests can identify long-term consolidation impairments in this population.

OBJECTIVES:Alzheimer's disease progresses through several stages, starting with a preclinical phase characterized by subjective cognitive decline (SCD), where individuals express concerns about their memory despite normal cognitive test results. Recent research has indicated subtle semantic difficulties in SCD, prompting the need for a deeper investigation into cognitive processing during this phase. This study aimed to investigate the cognitive processing of famous and unfamiliar faces in individuals with SCD compared to healthy controls, focusing on semantic memory deficits assessment. METHOD:Twenty-seven participants with SCD and 26 control participants performed a judgment task involving famous and unfamiliar faces while their eye movements were recorded. Mean fixation times, number of revisitations, and number of fixations were analyzed between the two groups. RESULTS:The SCD group exhibited no significant differences in mean fixation times and in the number of revisited regions between famous and unfamiliar faces, in contrast to the control group, which showed distinct patterns in processing these categories of stimuli. CONCLUSION:These findings suggest that individuals with SCD process famous faces similarly to unfamiliar faces, indicating a potential weakening of semantic processing in SCD. This may have implications for early detection of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

BACKGROUND:About half of MCI patients experience semantic deficits, which may predict progression to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The neural basis of these deficits in MCI is not well understood. This study aimed to examine the relationship between semantic memory performance and cortical thickness in MCI patients. METHODS:Using FreeSurfer, T1-weighted MRI scans were analyzed from MCI patients with (MCIsem+) and without (MCIsem-) semantic deficits. Correlation analyses across all participants, including healthy controls, examined the link between semantic memory and cortical thickness, controlling for age and education. Group comparisons of cortical thickness were also conducted between MCIsem+ and MCIsem- groups. RESULTS:Significant correlations emerged between semantic memory performance and cortical thickness in the left medial temporal lobe, right temporal pole, and bilateral frontal regions-areas involved in central semantic and executive processes. Additionally, MCIsem + patients showed reduced cortical thickness in frontal, parietal, and occipital areas compared to MCIsem- patients. CONCLUSION:Semantic memory performance in MCI patients is associated with structural differences in regions supporting both central and executive aspects of semantic processing. Given that MCIsem + patients may face higher risk of AD progression, longitudinal studies should investigate these cortical markers' predictive value.

Cognitive impairment (CI) is a common and disabling symptom in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), significantly affecting employment outcomes and quality of life. Despite its prevalence, routine assessment of CI is often hindered by limited access to comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations and challenges in interpreting subjective concerns. The relationship between objective and subjective measures of cognition is complex and often discordant. This review provides an overview focused on patient-reported CI, emphasizing on the association with objective measures of CI, the role of confounding factors, and the limitations of current screening approaches. Regardless of the underlying processes driving these concerns, patient-reported CI has a significant impact on day-to-day quality of life of PwMS and needs to be efficiently evaluated and addressed as several reversible causes can be managed efficiently when detected.

Subjective cognitive decline (SCD) refers to a condition in which older adults are concerned that they are experiencing a decline in cognitive function. The risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) is significantly higher in older adults with SCD, as a proportion of them will go on to develop the disease over the years. Despite overall normal function on cognitive tests, evidence suggests that some SCD individuals may have circumscribed deficits in specific cognitive domains or tests. This study aimed to investigate semantic function in SCD, specifically by comparing the performance of SCD progressors (SCDp) - who fulfilled MCI criteria at follow-up, and SCD non-progressors (SCDnp) - who either remained stable or reverted to normal cognition. The main hypothesis was that the SCDp group would show significantly lower semantic performance than the SCDnp group at baseline. We also expected the SCDp group to decline faster on semantic tests at the two-year follow-up assessment than SCDnp. Data from the CIMA-Q cohort were analyzed. The SCDp and SCDnp groups were formed by precisely matching 25 participants from each group based on age and education levels. Both groups were compared in terms of neuropsychological performance at baseline and follow-up. Independent samples t-tests or ANCOVAs were used to measure baseline performance in the semantic domain and other cognitive domains. To study longitudinal changes in cognitive performance at follow-up, two-factor ANOVAs were performed. At baseline, SCDp participants performed significantly worse than SCDnp participants on the Category (semantic) fluency test, although this difference was not maintained at follow-up. No difference was found in other cognitive domains at baseline. Longitudinal analyses showed that a significant decline in MoCA score was observed in the SCDp group only. The results of this study suggest that reduced verbal semantic fluency in older people with SCD may indicate a higher risk of future cognitive decline.

Episodic memory tasks employing verbal material are generally sensitive to material-specific memory impairments in individuals with left mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (LTLE), whereas visuospatial memory tasks are less consistently failed by individuals with right mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (RTLE). A limitation of these tasks is the possibility for the examinee to use verbalization strategies when tested with visuospatial stimuli, and visualization strategies with verbal material. In this study, we aimed to develop two new analogous computerized recognition tasks to identify material-specific memory impairments, adapted from those previously developed in our lab: one using verbal material (i.e., pseudowords), and the other visuospatial material (i.e., pictures depicting similar landscapes of mountains, trees, and lakes). Each task consists of a 3-trial learning phase and delayed recognition trials after 30 min. and two weeks. After having established normative data for adults (N = 124), we assessed the ability of each task to detect material-specific memory impairments in patients who have had surgery for LTLE (n = 16) or RTLE (n = 12). Both tasks have good psychometric properties. The RTLE group showed significantly poorer performance on the visuospatial than on the verbal memory test on all trials. The LTLE group showed significantly poorer performance on the verbal than on the visuospatial memory test on delayed (30-min. and 2-week) recognition trials. Memory profile on delayed recognition trials was concordant with the lateralization of epilepsy surgery in 87.5% of LTLE and in 83.3% of the RTLE group. This study provides preliminary clinical validation for our novel tasks to detect material-specific memory impairments in individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy.

Theory of mind (ToM) deficits have been reported in persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). However, most studies have used pictures or written scenarios as stimuli without distinguishing between cognitive and affective ToM, and no studies have investigated older pwMS. We recruited 13 young healthy controls (HC), 14 young pwMS, 14 elderly HC and 15 elderly pwMS. ToM was measured using an adaptation of the Conversations and Insinuations task (Ouellet et al., J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc., 16, 2010, 287). In this ecological video‐based task, participants watch four 2‐minute videos of social interactions, which are interrupted by multiple choice questions about either the emotional state (affective ToM) or the intention (cognitive ToM) of the characters. They also underwent a short neuropsychological battery including cognitive, executive and social cognition tasks and questionnaires. We observed a significant interaction between the ToM conditions and the groups regarding ToM performance. Elderly pwMS scored significantly lower than elderly HC and young pwMS in cognitive ToM, but not in affective ToM. They also showed the largest discrepancy between their cognitive and affective ToM. Young pwMS showed relatively preserved ToM in both conditions. Both cognitive and affective ToM correlated with global cognition and executive abilities, but not with social cognitive measures (emotion recognition, real‐life empathy). This study suggests that decline in cognitive ToM might be accentuated by advancing age in pwMS. These impairments are most likely underlied by cognitive and executive difficulties, but not by core social cognitive impairments. Future studies should investigate the real‐life impacts of ToM impairments in pwMS.

Objectives. Patients aging with multiple sclerosis (MS) often encounter challenges with prospective memory (PM), particularly in tasks where intentions are realized at specific times, known as time-based tasks (TB). Performing PM task in an ecological context and generating you own prospective intentions are factors known to enhance PM performance. The aim of this study was to investigate whether these factors can alleviate difficulties in these patients living with MS. A secondary objective was to explore the relationship between TB performance and the functional autonomy of patients living with MS. Method. Forty patients living with MS and 40 controls, each group including 20 younger (under 55) and 20 older (over 55) participants, performed a TB task consisting of ecological stimuli. The task included a condition where aspects of the prospective intention were either self-generated or imposed by the examiner. Results. Younger patients living with MS exhibited better performance on the TB task compared to older patients, while the performance of younger and older control participants was similar. Additionally, self-generating aspects of the intention improved the performance of patients living with MS. PM scores were associated with functional autonomy in older patients living with MS, but not in younger patients living with MS. Conclusions. The use of familiar stimuli alone is insufficient for enabling older patients living with MS to compensate for their TB difficulties, unlike elderly control participants. However, they do benefit from generating certain aspects of the intentions themselves. Also, the capacity to perform TB task is positively associated to functional autonomy in elderly patients living with MS, but not their younger counterparts.

The insula is often considered the fifth lobe of the brain and is increasingly recognized as one of the most connected regions in the brain, with widespread connections to cortical and subcortical structures. As a follow-up to our previous tractography work, we investigated the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) profiles of insular subregions and assessed their concordance with structural connectivity. We used the CONN toolbox to analyze the rsFC of the same 19 insular regions of interest (ROIs) we used in our prior tractography work and regrouped them into six subregions based on their connectivity pattern similarity. Our analysis of 50 healthy participants confirms the known broad connectivity of the insula and shows novel and specific whole-brain and intra-connectivity patterns of insular subregions. By examining such subregions, our findings provide a more detailed pattern of connectivity than prior studies that may prove useful for comparison between patients.

Objective:Studies on vulnerability to interference have shown promise in distinguishing between normal and pathological aging, such as the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI). However, these studies did not include a non-semantic condition essential in distinguishing between what is attributable specifically to semantic memory impairments and more generalized vulnerability to interference. The present study aimed to determine whether the increased vulnerability to semantic interference previously observed in individuals at increased risk of AD (aMCI) is specifically associated with the semantic nature of the material, or if it also affects other types of material, suggesting more generalized executive and inhibitory impairment.Participants and Methods:Seventy-two participants (N = 72) divided into two groups (33 aMCI and 39 NC) matched for age and education were included in the study. They underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological examination, and took the adapted French version of the LASSI-L (semantic interference test), as well as a homologous experimental phonemic test, the TIP-A. Independent sample t-tests, mixed ANOVA and ANCOVA on memory and vulnerability to interference scores with the Group (NC, aMCI) as between-group factor and the Type of material (semantic, phonemic) as within-subject factor were conducted to compare memory and interference in both contexts for both groups.Results:For all memory scores, results revealed a significant main effect of group (NC > aMCI), a significant main effect of the type of material (semantic > phonemic) and a significant Group x Type interaction (disproportionately poorer performance in a semantic context for aMCI compared to NC). Word recognition was equivalent in both contexts for aMCI, whereas NC were better in a semantic context. aMCI also committed more phonemic false recognition errors, were disproportionately more vulnerable to retroactive semantic interference and showed a disproportionately higher percentage of intrusion errors associated with proactive semantic interference than NC.Conclusions:To our knowledge, this is the first study to meticulously compare aMCI and elderly control vulnerability to inter-list interference and its impact on memory processes in two very similarly designed conditions using different types of material (semantic vs. phonemic). Indeed, many studies on interference focused solely on intra-list buildup of interference or on semantic material. Taken together, our results suggest that aMCI patients present generalized difficulties in source memory and inhibition, but that their inability to benefit normally from the depth of processing of semantic material results in even more semantic intrusion errors during proactive interference. This superficial semantic processing also significantly impacts the ability of aMCI to show good recall after being exposed to an interference list and the passage of time, resulting in a greater vulnerability to semantic retroactive interference than controls. In summary, our results suggest that impairment of semantic memory, and, more precisely, the loss of benefit from the depth of semantic processing, represents the cornerstone of their memory and vulnerability to interference patterns. The classical level of processing theory therefore constitutes an ideal, simple framework to predict aMCI patients’ performance when facing interference, a parallel too rarely addressed in the literature.

Compared to other components of social cognition, knowledge of social norms has received less attention, even more in AD. While semantic memory deficits have been identified early in the AD disease course, no study has delved into the knowledge of social norms at these preliminary stages, although evidence suggests it shares common ground with semantic memory. Additionally, it is unclear whether the knowledge of social norms in AD is associated with deficits in social cognition, as seen in behavioral variant bvFTD. Finally, how social norms knowledge impairments predicts behaviours in real-world settings remains unknown in the context of AD. This study included 286 individuals suffering with MCI, 157 with AD, 285 with bvFTD along with 384 cognitively unimpaired older healthy controls (HC). Participants were selected from the National Alzheimers Coordinating Center. Participants completed the Social Norms Questionnaire (SNQ) which assesses the tendency to break or overadhere to social norms. They also completed tests assessing executive, semantic and socioemotional functions, along with tests measuring spontaneous interpersonal behaviours. Between-group comparisons show that individuals with AD and MCI break and overadhere to social norms significantly more than HC, while they perform better than individuals with bvFTD. Knowledge of social norms was mainly associated with semantic knowledge across groups (controlling for age, sex, education, and disease severity), and predicted insensitivity and disinhibition severity in patients. Altogether, this study extends findings of previous studies by focusing on social norms knowledge underlying mechanisms. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. ### Funding Statement This study did not receive any funding ### Author Declarations I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained. Yes The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below: Data from the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center (NACC) were used. The NACC obtained approvals from the Institutional Review Boards of all participating institutions. I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals. Yes I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance). Yes I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable. Yes All data produced in the present study are available upon reasonable request to the authors

Objective: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a risk factor for developing Alzheimer's disease (AD), and about half of older people with MCI will progress to AD within the next 5 years. The aim of the present study was to compare the semantic performance of MCI progressors (MCI-p) and nonprogressors (MCI-np). The hypothesis was that MCI-p would present with poorer semantic performance relative to MCI-np at baseline, indicating that semantic deficits may increase the risk of future decline toward AD. Method: Fifty-six MCI participants (aged 65-89) from the Consortium for Early Identification of Alzheimer's Disease-Quebec study were analyzed, with 18 progressing and 38 remaining stable over 2 years. Analysis of covariance assessed their initial semantic and nonsemantic cognitive performance, and mixed analyses of variance gauged longitudinal patterns of cognitive decline at the 2-year follow-up. Results: In the semantic domain, MCI-p performed significantly worse than MCI-np at baseline on two semantic tests (category fluency and object decision). In other cognitive domains, MCI-p performed worse than MCI-np on a test of executive functions (cognitive flexibility) but showed similar performance on a test of episodic memory. There were no significant differences between groups in the rates of progression on semantic tests over the 2-year period, but a steeper decline was observed in MCI-p at follow-up on tests of global cognition, episodic memory, and processing speed. Conclusion: This suggest that MCI patients who present with semantic memory impairment in addition to episodic memory impairment are at greater risk of future progression to AD.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Patients with isolated/idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD) are at high risk for developing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). However, there is a lack of scientific knowledge regarding the accuracy of cognitive screening tools to identify these conditions in iRBD. This study aimed to determine in iRBD the psychometrics of 2 screening tests to discriminate patients with MCI and those at risk of DLB. METHODS:We retrospectively selected and followed 64 patients with polysomnography-confirmed iRBD seen in sleep clinic between 2006 and 2021, 32 with MCI (mean age 68.44 years, 72% men), 32 without MCI (67.78 years, 66% men), and 32 controls (69.84 years, 47% men). Participants underwent a neurologic evaluation and neuropsychological assessment for MCI diagnosis. They also completed the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and Clock Drawing Test (CDT). Fifty-three patients were followed (mean of 5.10 ± 2.64 years); 6 developed DLB, and 16 developed Parkinson disease. An independent cohort of 10 patients with iRBD who later developed DLB was also recruited and followed. Receiver operating characteristic curves with area under the curve (AUC) were performed assessing the discriminant value of the MoCA and CDT. RESULTS:The cut-off values that best differentiated patients who developed DLB from controls were on the MoCA total score (≤25/30 with 100% [95% CI 61%-100%] sensitivity and 78% [61%-89%] specificity, AUC = 0.888) and delayed recall (≤3/5 with 83% [44%-97%] sensitivity and 78% [61%-89%] specificity, AUC = 0.875). Both values yielded a sensitivity of 90% (60%-98%) to detect patients at risk of DLB in the independent cohort. Cutoffs that best discriminated patients with MCI from controls were: ≤25/30 (MoCA total score) with 72% [55%-84%] sensitivity, 78% [61%-89%] specificity, AUC = 0.803 and ≤2/5 (MoCA delayed recall) with 63% [45%-77%] sensitivity, 94% [80%-98%] specificity, AUC = 0.843. No acceptable optimal values were found for the CDT. DISCUSSION:In iRBD, the MoCA demonstrates adequate psychometric properties to identify patients most at risk of developing DLB and to screen for MCI, whereas the CDT does not. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE:This study provides Class II evidence that the MoCA, but not the CDT, is useful in screening patients with iRBD for the risk of developing DLB.

Objective:Prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to produce an action at a specific moment in the future signaled by the occurrence of a specific event (EB condition), a time or a time interval (TB condition). Detection of the appropriate moment corresponds to the prospective component (PC), while production of the appropriate action corresponds to the retrospective (RC) component. Although PM difficulties have been reported in healthy aging and in association with Multiple Sclerosis (MS), PM has not been examined in elderly people with MS (PwMS), which is particularly relevant since their life expectancy has improved significantly in recent years due to available treatments, and PM is essential to daily functioning. The main objective of this study was to investigate whether the decline in PM performance with advancing age is influenced by the presence of multiple sclerosis (MS). This study also aimed to clarify the type of PM impairment (PC vs RC in TB and EB conditions) in MS as a function of age.Participants and Methods:A total of 80 participants were recruited and separated into four groups: elderly PwMS (n = 20), young PwMS (n = 20), elderly healthy controls (HC) (n = 20) and young HC (n = 20). PM and its components were measured using the TEMP, an experimental ecological tool developed by our laboratory that has been validated in previous studies. In addition, all participants underwent a series of neuropsychological tests specific to MS (MACIFMS) and aging (Boston Naming Test, Clock Drawing Test, Towers of London, Trail making Test, Stroop, MoCA).Results:On the TEMP total score, a two-way ANOVA showed a main effect of age (F[1,75]=47.4, p<0.001, n2 = .40), a main effect of the presence of MS (F[1,75]=19.51, p<0.001, n2 = .21) as well as a significant Age X Disease interaction (F[2,74] =5.40, p=0.023, n2 = .07). Direct comparison between EB and TB conditions revealed that for the PC, only elderly PwMS had more difficulty in the TB than in the EB condition (Z = -2.51, p = 0.012), whereas RC score was significantly lower in the TB than in the EB condition in all groups except in younger controls (younger PwMS : Z = -2.56, p = 0.01; elderly HC : Z = -3.31, p < 0.001; elderly PwMS :Z = -3.04, p = 0.002).Conclusions:The TEMP revealed a marked impairment in PM in elderly PwMS compared to elderly HC and young PwMS. This impairment was particularly evident on the PC component in the TB condition. RC difficulties noted in the TB condition in all but younger controls reflect the arbitrary nature of the cue-action link that is particularly sensitive to episodic memory difficulties often observed in aging and MS.

Objective To accurately assess prospective memory (PM) functioning in patients who sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI), it is important to use both subjective (questionnaires) and objective (tests) measures. However, which factors have the most significant effect on each PM measure remains unknown. This observational study aims to verify whether TBI severity or psychological status has the most influence on patients' objective and subjective PM measures.Method Fifteen healthy control (HC) participants (n = 15), 19 patients with a mild TBI (n = 19) and 30 patients with a moderate-to-severe TBI (n = 30) were recruited during the post-acute phase. For almost every participant, a relative was also recruited (n = 62). The Test & eacute;cologique de m & eacute;moire prospective (TEMP), an objective computerized PM measure consisting of naturalistic stimuli, was administered to all participants along with anxiety (BAI) and depression inventories (BDI). Participants and their relatives also completed a questionnaire, the comprehensive assessment of PM (CAPM), a subjective PM measure assessing everyday failures.Results Results on the objective PM measure were predicted by TBI severity, while psychological symptoms (BAI and BDI) predicted scores on the subjective PM measure. In addition, relatives in the moderate-to-severe TBI group reported more PM failures on the subjective measure and their perception was significantly correlated with results on the objective PM measure, which was not the case for the other two groups of relatives.Conclusions Objective PM measures are related to TBI severity and appear more robust against the influence of psychological factors than subjective PM measures.