INTRODUCTION:Happé's Strange Stories task was developed in 1994 to assess theory of mind, the ability to infer mental states in oneself and others. Since then, it has undergone revisions, translations, and adaptations. A modified version of the task, the Strange Stories-Revised (SS-R), previously showed satisfactory qualities in a study aiming at identifying psychometrically acceptable social cognitive measures. OBJECTIVE:The current study expands upon the psychometric evaluation study by examining the qualities of a short version of the SS-R in a sample of healthy adult subjects. METHODS:One hundred and eighteen healthy adults completed the task along with neurocognitive measures. Mean scores of the long and short versions were compared. Associations between ToM as measured by performance on this abbreviated version of the SS-R, and potential confounders were explored. Internal consistency, dimensionality of the short version, and performance comparisons across three stages of aging (18-34; 35-59; 60-85 years old) were investigated, and standard measurement error was calculated to improve precision and data interpretation. RESULTS:Reliability coefficients were comparable in the short and long versions. Principal component analysis showed that a one-factor structure best fits the data. Significant differences were observed in ToM performance across the three age groups, indicating a decline with time that was also captured by the long version, starting during midlife and increasing in significance with age. CONCLUSION:The short version of the SS-R is a promising measure that can be profitably used in time-limited settings to assess theory of mind.

Theory of mind (ToM) deficits have been reported in persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). However, most studies have used pictures or written scenarios as stimuli without distinguishing between cognitive and affective ToM, and no studies have investigated older pwMS. We recruited 13 young healthy controls (HC), 14 young pwMS, 14 elderly HC and 15 elderly pwMS. ToM was measured using an adaptation of the Conversations and Insinuations task (Ouellet et al., J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc., 16, 2010, 287). In this ecological video‐based task, participants watch four 2‐minute videos of social interactions, which are interrupted by multiple choice questions about either the emotional state (affective ToM) or the intention (cognitive ToM) of the characters. They also underwent a short neuropsychological battery including cognitive, executive and social cognition tasks and questionnaires. We observed a significant interaction between the ToM conditions and the groups regarding ToM performance. Elderly pwMS scored significantly lower than elderly HC and young pwMS in cognitive ToM, but not in affective ToM. They also showed the largest discrepancy between their cognitive and affective ToM. Young pwMS showed relatively preserved ToM in both conditions. Both cognitive and affective ToM correlated with global cognition and executive abilities, but not with social cognitive measures (emotion recognition, real‐life empathy). This study suggests that decline in cognitive ToM might be accentuated by advancing age in pwMS. These impairments are most likely underlied by cognitive and executive difficulties, but not by core social cognitive impairments. Future studies should investigate the real‐life impacts of ToM impairments in pwMS.

The modulation of early sensory event-related potentials such as the P1, N1, and N170 by emotion and emotional ambiguity is still controversial. Some studies have found a modulation of one or all of these components by one or both of these factors, whereas others have failed to show such results. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of emotion and ambiguity on the behavioral and electrophysiological responses to a morphed emotion recognition task. Thirty-seven healthy participants (19 men) completed an emotion recognition task where photographs of a male face expressing the six basic emotions morphed with another emotion (in a proportion ranging from 26% to 74%) were randomly presented while electroencephalography was recorded. After each face presentation, participants were asked to identify the facial emotion. We found an emotional effect on the P1, N1, and N170, with greater amplitudes for some emotional facial expressions than for others. However, we found no significant emotional ambiguity effect or interaction between emotion and ambiguity for any of these components. These findings suggest that computation of emotional facial expressions (regardless of their ambiguity) occurs from the early stages of brain processing. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Although there has been a marked increase in interest in social cognition (SC) in recent years, psychometric data relating to many tasks used to measure its components remain limited in healthy populations with only five articles published to date. It is accordingly premature to speak of a consensus concerning the specific components, or best tests of the components, and possible cultural differences. The present study sought to partially fill that gap, examining the psychometric properties of a battery of SC tasks in a sample of 100 healthy adults aged 18-85 years old. Initially, nine tasks assessing four SC components were selected: emotion recognition, theory of mind, attributional bias, and social judgment. Construct validity and criterion-related validity were assessed using factor and correlational analyses. Performance across age and sex groups was also investigated. Reliability was assessed through internal consistency, interrater and intercoder agreement. Results indicated satisfactory properties for the Ambiguous Intentions Hostility Questionnaire-blame score, the Social Judgment Task, the Facial Emotions Recognition Test, and a modified version of the Strange Stories Task. Statistically significant differences were found between the groups with regard to age and sex after accounting for demographic and cognitive factors. However, the correlations of these measures with relationship quality were mostly very low, raising questions about their concomitant validity. Other tasks showed sub-optimal properties, suggesting that some frequently used tests require further validation or modifications to ensure the quality of research findings. Based on the results, recommended measures for future studies and limitations are discussed.

Accumulating evidence points toward an association between older age and performance decrements in social cognition (SC). We explored age-related variations in four components of SC: emotion recognition, theory of mind, social judgment, and blame attributions. A total of 120 adults divided into three stages (18-34 years, 35-59 years, 60-85 years) completed a battery of SC. Between and within age-group differences in SC were investigated. Path analyses were used to identify relationships among the components. Emotion recognition and theory of mind showed differences beginning either in midlife, or after. Blame attributions and social judgment did not show a significant difference. However, social judgment varied significantly within groups. Path models revealed a relationship between emotion recognition and theory of mind. Findings highlight age-related differences in some components and a link between two components. Strategies promoting social functioning in aging might help to maintain or improve these abilities over time.

L’Échelle de Dénomination de Boston (BNT) est un des tests neuropsychologiques les plus utilisés pour évaluer les capacités de dénomination d’images, en particulier lors du dépistage de démences. À partir de la version originale (60 items), une version abrégée à 30 items (BNT-30) a été élaborée. La présente étude a analysé les réponses produites par 286 participants québécois francophones âgés entre 50 et 93 ans afin d’établir des normes pour cette version abrégée. Les résultats montrent que la performance au BNT-30 est liée à l’âge et au niveau d’éducation. Des consignes d’administration détaillées sont proposées afin d’uniformiser la passation et la cotation du BNT-30.

Objective. This study presents the results of the development and validation of the Judgment Assessment Tool (JAT). The JAT measures two core aspects of judgment, namely generation of solutions (G) and assessment of options (A), the two first stages of decision-making process.Method. During the test development phase (study 1), a preliminary version of the JAT was evaluated by 14 experts and tested on 30 healthy controls (HC). One hundred and twenty HC (20-84 years old) and 24 participants with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) were subsequently tested on the final version of the JAT(study 2). HC participants aged 60 and over and AD participants underwent a neuropsychological evaluation.Results. The internal consistency of the final version of the JAT assessed by Cronbach's a was 0.71 for the HC group and 0.85 for the AD group. Performance on the JAT was normally distributed both in the HC and AD groups. The test correlated with abstract reasoning, verbal fluency, and working memory. Results revealed adequate test-retest reliability and excellent interrater reliability (k coefficient was 0.92 for the G section and 0.93 for the A section). Demographically adjusted normative data were generated based on a regression analysis and results showed that AD participants performed worse than HC with a large effect size (Cohen's d = 1.79).Conclusion. Overall, these results provide evidence of the reliability and strong construct validity of the JAT to evaluate judgment.

AbstractObjectives:Concussion is defined as a complex pathophysiological process affecting the brain. Although the cumulative and long-term effects of multiple concussions are now well documented on cognitive and motor function, little is known about their effects on emotion recognition. Recent studies have suggested that concussion can result in emotional sequelae, particularly in females and multi-concussed athletes. The objective of this study was to investigate sex-related differences in emotion recognition in asymptomatic male and female multi-concussed athletes.Methods:We tested 28 control athletes (15 males) and 22 multi-concussed athletes (10 males) more than a year since the last concussion. Participants completed the Post-Concussion Symptom Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, a neuropsychological test battery and a morphed emotion recognition task. Pictures of a male face expressing basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise) morphed with another emotion were randomly presented. After each face presentation, participants were asked to indicate the emotion expressed by the face.Results:Results revealed significant sex by group interactions in accuracy and intensity threshold for negative emotions, together with significant main effects of emotion and group.Conclusions:Male concussed athletes were significantly impaired in recognizing negative emotions and needed more emotional intensity to correctly identify these emotions, compared to same-sex controls. In contrast, female concussed athletes performed similarly to same-sex controls. These findings suggest that sex significantly modulates concussion effects on emotional facial expression recognition. (JINS, 2017,23, 65–77)

The relationship between intelligence measures and 2 EEG measures of non-rapid eye movement sleep, sleep spindles and Sigma activity, was examined in 13 typically-developing (TD) and 13 autistic children with normal IQ and no complaints of poor sleep. Sleep spindles and Sigma EEG activity were computed for frontal (Fp1, Fp2) and central (C3, C4) recording sites. Time in stage 2 sleep and IQ was similar in both groups. Autistic children presented less spindles at Fp2 compared to the TD children. TD children showed negative correlation between verbal IQ and sleep spindle density at Fp2. In the autistic group, verbal and full-scale IQ scores correlated negatively with C3 sleep spindle density. The duration of sleep spindles at Fp1 was shorter in the autistic group than in the TD children. The duration of sleep spindles at C4 was positively correlated with verbal IQ only in the TD group. Fast Sigma EEG activity (13.25–15.75Hz) was lower at C3 and C4 in autistic children compared to the TD children, particularly in the latter part of the night. Only the TD group showed positive correlation between performance IQ and latter part of the night fast Sigma activity at C4. These results are consistent with a relationship between EEG activity during sleep and cognitive processing in children. The difference between TD and autistic children could derive from dissimilar cortical organization and information processing in these 2 groups.

We previously reported finding that performance was impaired on four out of five theory of mind (ToM) tests in a group of 21 individuals diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia (pScz), relative to a non-clinical group of 29 individuals (Scherzer et al., 2012). Only the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test did not distinguish between groups. A principal components analysis revealed that the results on the ToM battery could be explained by one general ToM factor with the possibility of a latent second factor. As well, the tests were not equally sensitive to the pathology. There was also overmentalization in some ToM tests and under-mentalisation in others. These results led us to postulate that there is more than one component to ToM. We hypothesized that correlations between the different EF measures and ToM tests would differ sufficiently within and between groups to support this hypothesis. We considered the relationship between the performance on eight EF tests and five ToM tests in the same diagnosed and non-clinical individuals as in the first study. The ToM tests shared few EF correlates and each had its own best EF predictor. These findings support the hypothesis of multiple ToM components.

Autism spectrum (AS) is a neurodevelopmental condition associated with poor sleep, which impairs daytime functioning. Most studies of sleep in autism have been based on subjective measures, notably parental reports. A few studies have used objective, laboratory polysomnography (PSG) measures, but often include confounding factors such as intellectual disability, sleep problems, other psychiatric illnesses, and medication. To address these limitations, we examined the relationship between sleep and behavior in prototypical AS of typical level of intelligence and non-autistic children not complaining of sleep problems. We examined sleep variables with The Children’ Sleep Habit Questionnaire (CSHQ) and a daily sleep agenda, both filled out by parents, and by PSG. These subjective and objective measures both revealed that sleep latency was longer in AS than in non-autistic children. Furthermore, AS children also showed less slow-wave sleep (SWS: stages 3+4), fewer sleep spindles and fewer K-complexes than non-autistic children. REM sleep, including eye movement density, was similar between the two groups. The proportion of light sleep, (stage 1 non-REM sleep) was negatively correlated with IQ (Wechsler and Raven matrices) in both groups of participants. A large amount of SWS predicted low levels of internalizing behavior in both groups and typical social functioning as determined by ADOS in AS children. These results indicate that autistic children not complaining of sleep problems may nonetheless be affected by poor sleep, which in turn influences their daytime functioning.

Sleep disorders in children with autism are frequently reported on questionnaires filled by parents. The aim of this study was to characterize sleep using objective and subjective measures in the same sample of autistic children without comorbidities and no primary complaints of sleep disorders. Eleven autistic children (10.3 ± 2.2 years) diagnosed with ADI-R and ADOS criteria and 13 typically-developing children (10.2 ± 2.0 years) were recruited. Exclusion criteria comprised the use of psychotropic medication, a full IQ lower than 75, a history of epilepsy and spontaneous complaints of sleep disorders from the parents. After their children were recruited, parents filled a sleep diary for 2 weeks and the Child Sleep Habit Questionnaire (CSHQ); children were then recorded for 2 consecutive nights in a sleep laboratory. Sleep stages of night 2 were scored according to Rechtschaffen and Kales (1968) using 20 s. epochs. Stage 2 sleep spindles and K-complexes were visually scored on bilateral prefrontal and central electrodes; REM sleep rapid eye movements were also scored. Variables were log transformed when abnormally distributed. Groups were compared using t-tests for independent samples. Sleep diaries showed a longer sleep latency in autistic children (43.6 ± 39.0 mn vs. 17.2 ± 17.5 mn, p = .037). The CSHQ showed no significant group differences. Polysomnographically recorded sleep latency was longer in autistic children (33.0 ± 8.3 min vs. 14.4 ± 4.6 min, p = .023), the duration of stages 3 and 4 (slow-wave sleep: SWS) was shorter (18.2 ± 3.2% vs 23.6 ± 5.7%; p = .009) but total sleep time was similar (539.7 ± 54.3 vs. 560.8 ± 60.2; p = .94). Sleep spindle density (per hour of Stage 2) was similar in both groups at central electrodes and Fp1 but it was lower at Fp2 (119.2 ± 97.7 vs. 225.5 ± 122.2, p = .03). The density of K-complexes was lower at the four electrodes (.0001 < p < .01). REM sleep parameters (latency, duration, distribution, eye movement density) were not different between groups. These results show that autistic children without subjectively reported sleep difficulties according to the CSHQ show signs of poor sleep on sleep diaries and polysomnography. Sleep diaries disclosed longer sleep latencies. Most polysomnographic differences were in nonREM sleep, raising the hypothesis of a difficulty for autistics to synchronize their cortical activity, possibly leading to impaired cortical sleep protective mechanisms such as sleep spindles and K-complexes. Canadian Institute for Health Research; "Fonds de recherche du Québec – Santé".

Studies showed that sleep spindle activity correlate with IQ scores in typically developing individuals. Sleep spindles are diminished in children and adults with autism compared to typically developing individuals. We investigated the relationship between IQ scores and sleep spindles activity in children with autism. Thirteen boys with high functioning autism (HFA: 10.2 ± 2.1 years old) and 13 comparison children (COM: 10.2 ± 2.0 years old) were recorded for two consecutive nights. They completed the WISC-III in the morning after night 2. The absolute number of sleep spindles and spindle index (number/hour) sigma EEG power (slow: 12–13 Hz, fast 13.25–15.75 Hz) were recorded and computed from frontal (Fp1, Fp2) and central (C3, C4) electrodes during S2 sleep. Results from the two groups were compared using Student t-tests and Mann–Whitney U- tests. Correlations between EEG measure and IQ were tested using Pearson's rho (alpha = .05). There were no group differences on IQ (HFA: Global = 105.2 ± 18.7, Performance = 106.2 ± 13.0, Verbal = 103.8 ± 22.3; COM: 115.8 ± 10.3, 114.1 ± 12.1, and 115.1 ± 12.8, respectively). Spindle number and index were lower in the HFA than the COM group at Fp2 electrode (669.7 ± 467.3 and 126.8 ± 87.1 vs. 1018.8 ± 466.4 and 216.2 ± 121.2). The HFA group showed a negative correlation between C3 spindles index in the first quarter part of the night and the WISC global (r = −0.52) and verbal (C3 1/4 r = −0.62) scales. Sigma power was lower in the HFA than the COM group for C3 and C4 electrodes in the last quarter of the night (HFA: C3 = 0.925 ± 0.096, C4 = 0.650 ± 0.226; COM: C3 = 1.06 ± 0.18, C4 = 0.888 ± 0.301). The COM group showed a positive correlation between C4 fast Sigma activity in the last quarter of the night and global IQ (r = 0.592). There were no significant correlation between IQ and Sigma activity in the HFA group. These findings indicate that the relationship between sleep EEG and IQ is different in autistic and typically developing children, both with normal IQ scores. These differences are in terms of scalp location (frontal vs. more posterior), EEG markers (spindles vs. Sigma activity) and time of night (early and late night). Supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the "Fonds de la recherche du Québec – Santé".

Social cognitive psychologists (Frith, 1992; Hardy-Baylé et al., 2003) sought to explain the social problems and clarify the clinical picture of schizophrenia by proposing a model that relates many of the symptoms to a problem of metarepresentation, i.e., theory of mind (ToM). Given the differences in clinical samples and results between studies, and considering the wide range of what is considered to constitute ToM, one must ask if there a core function, or is ToM multifaceted with dissociable facets? If, there are dissociable dimensions or facets, which are affected in patients with paranoid schizophrenia? To answer these questions, a group of 21 individuals diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and 29 non-clinical control subjects, were tested on a battery of five different measures of ToM. The results confirmed that there was little difference in specificity of three of the tests in distinguishing between the clinical and non-clinical group, but there were important differences in the shared variance between the tests. Further analyses hint at two dimensions although a single factor with the same variance and the same contributing weights in both groups could explain the results. The deficits related to the attribution of cognitive and affective states to others inferred from available verbal and non-verbal information. Further analyses revealed that incorrect attributions of mental states including the attribution of threatening intentions to others, non-interpretative responses and incomplete answers, depending on the test of ToM.

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Tactile working memory was found to be more developed in completely blind (congenital and acquired) than in semi-sighted subjects, indicating that experience plays a crucial role in shaping working memory. A model of working memory, adapted from the classical model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch1 and Baddeley2 is presented where the connection strengths of a highly cross-modal network are altered through experience.