Despite the progress in the development of automated vehicles in the last decade, reaching the level of reliability required at large-scale deployment at an economical price and combined with safety requirements is still a long road ahead. In certain use cases, such as automated shuttles and taxis, where there is no longer even a steering wheel and pedals required, remote driving could be implemented to bridge this gap; a remote operator can take control of the vehicle in situations where it is too difficult for an automated system to determine the next actions. In logistics, it could even be implemented to solve already more pressing issues such as shortage of truck drivers, by providing more flexible working conditions and less standstill time of the truck. An important aspect of remote driving is the connection between the remote station and the vehicle. With the current roll-out of 5G mobile technology in many countries throughout the world, the implementation of remote driving comes closer to large-scale deployment. 5G could be a potential game-changer in the deployment of this technology. In this work, we examine the remote driving application and network-level performance of remote driving on a recently deployed sub-6-GHz commercial 5G stand-alone (SA) mobile network. It evaluates the influence of the 5G architecture, such as mobile edge computing (MEC) integration, local breakout, and latency on the application performance of remote driving. We describe the design, development (based on Hardware-in-the-Loop simulations), and performance evaluation of a remote driving solution, tested on both 5G and 4G mobile SA networks using two different vehicles and two different remote stations. Two test cases have been defined to evaluate the application and network performance and are evaluated based on position accuracy, relative reaction times, and distance perception. Results show the performance of the network to be sufficient for remote driving applications at relatively low speeds (<40 km/h). Network latencies compared with 4G have dropped to half. A strong correlation between latency and remote driving performance is not clearly seen and requires further evaluation taking into account the influence of the user interface.

In this paper we report the implementation and experimental evaluation of a proposed hybrid communication ecosystem for CCAM applications such as cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) and smart intersections. Three wireless technologies have been suggested for communications between vehicles and intelligent traffic lights and are evaluated in this work: ITS-G5 based on IEEE 802.11p and LTE sidelink with PC5 air interface for direct short range links, and regular mobile LTE with LTE Uu air interface for long range or indirect links. The applications used are independent of the communication channel, to enable a comparison on the application level of the different communication technologies. Field experiments were carried out with two CACC-equipped vehicles and three intelligent traffic lights in two field test locations under ideal, i.e., no-traffic, conditions and with real traffic. Experimental results related to CACC show that the best performance in terms of latency is achieved by the ITS-G5 system, while LTE PC5 and LTE Uu links show a penalty of 20 and 50 ms respectively. However, experimental results show that all three communication technologies were still able to guarantee string stable performance of the vehicle platoon. Regarding the smart intersections, an analysis based on field measurements and comparison between long- and short-range solutions is proposed; the analysis includes the impact of each channel on the applications such as speed advisory and green light prediction. The reported experimental evaluation shows the potential of current mobile technologies for CCAM use cases and highlights the way for further CCAM applications based on 5G and beyond mobile networks.

The focus of this study is the performance evaluation of Cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) achieved with three different wireless technologies for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications, i.e., intelligent transport system (ITS) G5 based on 802.11p and mobile long term evolution (LTE). For communications with LTE we will consider both the regular air interface LTE Uu and the device-to-device PC5, which is based on LTE sidelink. CACC employs inter-vehicle wireless communications to safely drive at short inter-vehicle distances, which improves road throughput. The underlying technical requirement to achieve this benefit is formulated by the notion of string stability, requiring the attenuation of the effects of disturbances in upstream direction. This work analyzes the relation between the communication performance and the string stable performance of a CACC string. Field experiments were carried out in Lelystad, The Netherlands, with two CACC-equipped vehicles. Results show that the latency of ITS G5 network is smaller than LTE Uu and PC5. However, since the majority latency of LTE Uu and PC5 is limited by the string stability requirement in the current test setting, string stability can still be guaranteed. The packet error with LTE PC5 and ITS G5 is observed. However, the packet error rate is small that does not significantly affect the CACC application performance.

The longitudinal polarization of the stored electron beam in the AmPS ring will be measured through the laser Compton backscattering technique. With the outlined design the measurement of the expected 70% degree of polarization to a statistical precision of 3% requires less than 60 sec under ideal conditions.

The tensor analyzing power Γ20 in elastic electron-deuteron scattering has been measured in the four momentum transfer region between 1.4 and 3.2 fm~l using the Internal Target Facility at NIKHEF. Tensor-polarized deuterium is produced in an Atomic Beam Source and injected into a storage cell. Scattered electrons and recoil deuterons were detected in coincidence with two large acceptance nonmagnetic detectors.

A recently installed polarized electron source will allow internal target experiments to be performed with polarized electrons at the NIKHEF Internal Target Hall, lb measure the longitudinal component of the polarization vector of the stored electron beam, a Polarimeter based on spin-dependent Compton scattering has been developed and successfully commissioned

High accuracy positioning systems are crucial for automated driving. Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) positioning is widely used in high-precision positioning and navigation applications, and can also be used in automated driving use cases. Little public information is available, however, on how the accuracy deteriorates as a function of the distance between the base station and the vehicle. This paper presents a practical approach and experimental results to characterize accuracy effects from increasing RTK operating range.

Positioning and timing subsystems are crucial components for cooperative and autonomous driving. Both during development and for validation and certification, it is crucial that advanced testing systems are available. To support the complete development life cycle, testing tools for hardware in the loop testing, open test track testing, and public road testing are required. This paper gives an overview of testing methodologies for all these cases. Furthermore, examples of implemented test systems are provided, illustrating how these test systems can be used in practice to support the development and certification process of positioning and timing systems for the automotive sector.

The complexity in cooperative and automated vehicles increases exponentially compared to traditional vehicles. An integrated tool suite supporting the full development V-cycle is crucial to enable cost and time efficient development processes. This paper presents such an approach. For the development phase, state of the art simulation platforms for active safety and automated systems are required, ranging in scale from complete traffic networks, down to component level simulation tools. For testing, hardware in the loop testing is necessary for sensor and communication systems, while a dedicated test environment for rapid, safe, and reproducible testing of cooperative and automated vehicles is required to test complete systems. Finally, for validation and performance testing, a test site for urban, interurban and highway is available.

Software is becoming an important part of the innovation for vehicles. In addition, the systems in vehicles become interconnected and also get external connections, to the internet and Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks (VANETs). These trends form a combined security and safety threat, because recent research has demonstrated a large number of security gaps for in-vehicle systems and their external connections.This overview paper presents attacker incentives and the most important security risks that are identified for the parts that make up a cooperative mobility system. For cooperative systems, the application data integrity must be validated to determine if values can be trusted. Furthermore, secure alternatives will be required for positioning, in order to be usable by safety critical systems. To create a secure in-vehicle system, it should be secure by design. In addition to the technical challenges, overarching cyber security dilemmas are addressed, such as stimulating the economy vs. improving security. We expect that the discussed risks will be a challenge for research, industry and authorities in the coming years.

Congestion is a major problem in large, urbanized areas. Intelligent transport solutions aim to reduce this problem. In general, traffic is monitored with the use of sensors, the resulting data are processed, a traffic state is estimated, and a control measure is computed and implemented. The availability and the quality of the data and the processing time of the algorithms are possible limiting factors in this pattern. The study reported in this paper examined the data requirements for various traffic control measures. In particular, the relationship between the spatial scale of the control measure and the time delay between the measurement and the control action, that is, the latency, was examined. A set of 17 applications showed that the larger the spatial scale of the control measure, the larger the latency could be. This relationship can be used to determine the latency quality criteria for a certain application. Alternatively, the relationship can be used to analyze which types of applications are possible when data with a specific quality can be collected. The latter analysis was carried out in the province of Delft, Netherlands. The analysis also showed the difference between the availability with respect to information and communication technology and useful data for applications. In particular, if no vehicles passed, information and communication technology systems were available, but no realistic measurements were produced.

Cooperative systems are being developed for commercial application in the near future. Standardisation of the architecture and communication is progressing and large scale field tests are conducted to test and validate cooperative systems. Standards, requirements or specifications for safety applications are largely absent. Yet, technical evaluation of field test data shows that requirements on time synchronization, positioning accuracy and communication performance, need to be defined to meet basic requirements of applications, such as the required distances and time gaps for warning drivers. This paper presents the methodology and infrastructure of the DITCM test site for technical evaluation, and shows field test results that motivate further standardisation of applications and basic technology.

Cooperative systems are being developed for large scale deployment in the near future. Validation of the performance of cooperative systems, and evaluation of the impact of cooperative applications is crucial before large scale deployment can proceed. The DITCM test site facilitates testing, evaluation, and validation of cooperative systems in normal traffic. The test site spans the urban roads in two cities and the connecting motorway. This paper presents the architecture of the road side facilities and its compliance to standards. It also shows the flexibility to configure the facilities to a wide range of validation and evaluation setups in a series of international and national projects.

In 2010, the positive effect of a cooperative driving system on traffic throughput was demonstrated in a large field test on the A270 Test Site in the Netherlands. A series of 48 vehicles, of which 100 % were equipped with vehicle-to-vehicle communication and a particular type of cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC), was able to damp shockwaves better than non-equipped vehicles. In 2011, similar field tests were held with a new system in which road side units cooperate with a low percentage of vehicles equipped with an automatic CACC or an advisory system. The road side units continuously monitor all vehicles and communicate traffic information to the equipped vehicles. When the road side detects a shockwave, speed advice messages are sent to the equipped vehicles to damp the shockwaves as quickly as possible. The 2011 system, with a low penetration of equipped vehicles, demonstrated that a system early on the roadmap of cooperative systems can also improve traffic throughput.

The design and implementation of the Road Side Unit for the A270 Test Site is presented. It consists of a sensor platform and V2I communication platform with full coverage of the test site. A service platform enables applications to make use of these facilities. The RSU will be used both for the implementation of real-time cooperative applications, and for independent testing and evaluating of cooperative ITS systems. It has been developed as part of the Dutch project SPITS.