Abstract The scarcity of productive agricultural land, exacerbated by climatic, topographic, and geological constraints, presents a pressing global challenge. Road construction exacerbates this issue further by exerting considerable negative impacts on soil, both in the long and short term. The process involves significant adverse effects such as land-take, soil sealing, compaction, alterations in local hydrology during construction, and the potential redistribution of contaminated soils throughout the operational phase. In the case of Norway, a mere 3-4% of the total land area is arable, with one-third of this fraction deemed suitable for cultivating cereals for human consumption. This challenge is further intensified by national policies aimed at increasing domestic agricultural production and enhancing food security. A substantial portion of agricultural land losses can be attributed to civil infrastructure development, particularly road construction. To mitigate these losses, the relocation and re-establishment of agricultural soils have been explored as potential solutions. However, despite the growing interest in this approach, peer-reviewed studies detailing the practical implementation and effectiveness of soil relocation processes remain scarce. Based on our search, the available literature is largely composed of reports from governmental bodies and private stakeholders, rather than peer-reviewed academic work. This review therefore aims to serve as a foundational reference for future research by synthesizing and consolidating the existing knowledge on soil relocation practices. By synthesizing insights from the available literature, this research aims to provide an overview of existing soil re-establishment techniques in civil construction projects. The findings will contribute to the development of evidence-based guidelines, enhancing the sustainability of infrastructure development while minimizing agricultural land losses.

Abstract Urbanization and infrastructure expansion threaten high-value agricultural land, particularly in regions with limited arable soil like Norway. As cities face increasing climate pressures, soil relocation emerges as a compensatory strategy to sustain food production and preserve ecosystem services. This paper applies a PESTLE analysis (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, Environmental) to identify systemic barriers to effective soil relocation in the context of urban development. Drawing from policy analysis, technical reports, and stakeholder input, the study reveals how regulatory fragmentation, financial burdens, social resistance, technical shortcomings, and ecological risks intersect to constrain successful outcomes. The findings suggest that sustainable soil relocation requires integrated governance, technical standards, and public engagement to support climate-resilient urban infrastructure planning.

Induction heating has been widely applied for asphalt pavement deicing. However, it is challenging in practice to accurately determine the optimal deicing times, which can lead to inefficiency and extra energy consumption. To address these issues, an electromagnetic induction heating shear deicing detection device was developed to capture the deicing times in this research. The heating characteristics of steel fiber modified asphalt mixtures were investigated under different steel fiber contents, heating distances and currents. The Interface Failure Times (IFTs) were obtained from shear force curves recorded by the device. The response surface methodology was applied to the prediction of the heating characteristics and IFTs. Afterwards, the effects of the texture depth and solution media on the shear deicing behavior were evaluated. The deicing performance of steel fiber coatings with varying areal densities was assessed. The results indicated that the heating characteristics and IFTs were well predicted by the ternary quadratic equation under different test conditions. The deicing times obtained from the IFTs were shorter and more intuitive than the ones derived from the heating rate. The removal of the ice from the mixture surface was hindered by its interaction with the surface texture. The salt ions promoted the generation of bubbles and pores in the ice, resulting in shorter IFTs. In addition, the steel fiber coating improved deicing efficiency by 26.2 % and reduced the steel fiber content by 90.3 % compared to the steel fiber modified asphalt mixture. These findings further contribute to high-efficiency deicing with low energy consumption and cost.

The EU-funded Nature-Demo project aims to identify, parameterize, and demonstrate the effectiveness of nature-based solutions (NbSs) in protecting critical infrastructure and enhancing climate resilience. This study provides an overview of the project, and reflects its goals via case studies from the Nordic region (Norway) and across Europe, where NbSs are either planned or already implemented. These case studies highlight the project's efforts to consolidate NbS approaches and emphasize their potential in addressing infrastructure challenges. Despite the increasing number of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) implementations, many projects continue to encounter challenges related to insufficient recognition, suboptimal design, and inadequate planning frameworks. For example, in Norway, although multiple regional and large-scale NbS initiatives have been launched, there is still a lack of clarity regarding long-term objectives, inaccurate financial projections, and a frequent conflation of NbS with hybrid grey-green solutions, often presented as the default option without critical evaluation.To bridge these gaps, this study highlights the strategic role of initiatives such as Nature-Demo in enhancing the systematic adoption and mainstreaming of NbS within infrastructure planning processes. Nature-Demo contributes to this objective through several key instruments, including: (i) a curated catalogue featuring concise and technically sound descriptions of over 60 NbS interventions; (ii) comprehensive stakeholder interviews to capture practical insights; (iii) a systematic classification of NbS typologies and their functional correlation to specific hazard categories; and (iv) illustrative case studies encompassing cost-benefit analyses and quantitative risk-reduction assessments. These tools collectively aim to support evidence-based decision-making and facilitate the integration of NbS into policy and infrastructure development agendas.

A field test was conducted to study in-situ stress distribution of coarse crushed rock (CR) materials. The existing literature on CR materials with upper sieve size > 90 mm is very limited, and there is a need to characterize these materials and validate the application of existing theory and models for unbound granular materials. The objective of this paper is to compare plate loading test (PLT) measurements on two CR subbase materials, and to analyze and compare computed and measured vertical stresses below subbase layers of these materials: open-graded CR 22/125 mm and dense-graded CR 0/125 mm. Earth pressure cells (EPCs) were installed to measure vertical stress at 0.6 m depth, sigma(0.6), during static PLTs with 300 mm plate diameter. The ratio of sigma 0.6 to the average stress at the surface, sigma(0), was compared with outputs from Boussinesq's theory and multilayer nonlinear analyses in KENPAVE. The average sigma 0.6 for all loading levels during the second cycle of PLT was 41% higher for CR 22/125 as compared to CR 0/125. The average ratio Delta sigma(0.6)/Delta(sigma 0) for EPC measurements were 12.4% and 9.7% for CR 22/125 and CR 0/125, respectively. Based on Boussinesq's theory, Delta sigma 0.6/Delta sigma 0 was 8.7%. Computed with KENPAVE, the average Delta sigma 0.6/Delta sigma 0 was 5.4% for both sections. The EPC measurements indicate better load distribution properties for dense-graded as compared to open-graded CR. These findings could be applied for empiric design systems by differentiating the load distribution parameters of such materials. Furthermore, the results indicate a need to validate the application of analytical or mechanistic-empirical pavement design tools for pavement structures comprising coarse CR materials.

The combined effects of moisture and high temperatures have emerged as a globally significant challenge, leading to the progressive degradation of asphalt pavements. This study aims to comprehensively investigate the deterioration of bitumen, bitumen-aggregate interface and asphalt mixture under the coupling effect of moisture and high temperature. For this purpose, the conventional physical tests, Fourier transform infrared radiation spectrometer, peeling test, Wilhelmy Plate Test, Marshall stability test, wheel track test and universal testing machine were conducted. The results showed that temperature and moisture significantly impacted the performance characteristics of bitumen, bitumen-aggregate interface, and asphalt mixtures. Among the three components, asphalt mixtures demonstrated the highest susceptibility to coupled conditions, exhibiting up to 53

The Measure deflectometer is the latest development in the family of rolling wheel deflectometers (RWDs). It uses the same Doppler sensor-based measurement as the traffic speed deflectometer (TSD), and functions as a standalone beam adaptable to various vehicles. Compared to the latest generations of TSD, which contain 10 doppler laser sensors, the Measure deflectometer incorporates 13 sensors. Also, while TSD data are conventionally reported by averaging the data at 10-m intervals, the Measure deflectometer provides data at finer intervals (as low as 2.5 cm), improving spatial resolution. In this study, the Measure deflectometer was mounted on the MESAS vehicle (TSD 14) of the German Federal Highway and Transport Research Institute (BASt) by replacing the TSD beam. Measurements were conducted at three German road segments in March 2023, and compared with TSD 14 measurements from October 2021. By ensuring comparable speed and temperature conditions, statistical analyses indicated consistency between the two devices in trends of the deflection slopes and two structural indices, with the Measure deflectometer generally yielding higher values, potentially due to the time gap between measurements. This study also demonstrates through numerical analysis why deflection slopes are preferable to deflections for comparison purposes. To improve the accuracy of the comparison, a temperature and speed correction method was also developed. The adjusted measurements further verified the agreement between the two systems in determining structural indices based on deflection slopes. The findings of this study demonstrate that the Measure deflectometer provides repeatable results, and its measurements are comparable to TSD measurements.

This research investigates the effect of downscaling coarse unbound granular material (UGM) for characterization of the resilient modulus with large-scale repeated load triaxial testing. Four open-graded and two dense- graded materials are downscaled based on the particle size distribution curve and upper sieve size for subbase materials of crushed rock (CR) 22/125 mm and CR 0/125 mm as defined by the Norwegian road design regulation. The results were evaluated using the K-theta model and Uzan's model. The findings for CR 4/22 mm, CR 6/32 mm, CR 8/45 mm, and CR 11/63 mm indicate that downscaling of coarse open-graded UGMs could be applicable for characterization of the resilient modulus. The results for dense-graded UGMs CR 0/22 mm and CR 0/63 mm indicate that downscaling reduces the resilient modulus. Further research should include complementary gradings and rock types.

Traffic speed deflectometer (TSD) is a state-of-the-practice equipment for structural evaluation of pavements. During TSD measurements, a lag between the maximum load and the maximum deflection is observed which is attributed to the viscoelastic nature of the asphalt pavements. Most of the methods for obtaining deflections from TSD data consider a maximum deflection under the moving load and neglect the lag distance. Greenwood Engineering, the manufacturer of TSD, uses a method capable of detecting the viscous lag. However, this method is ambiguous in nature, and due to using a synthetic database, it is not simply reproducible. This study presents a new curve fitting procedure for obtaining deflections from TSD data. For this purpose, a critical damping curve is fitted to the curve of deflection slopes. Using non-linear optimization techniques, the model coefficients are obtained. The proposed model shows a very good agreement with Greenwood's method in obtaining deflections.

Asphalt surface layer as one of the significant pavement layers is directly withstanding traffic loading and external service conditions, and its performance highly determines the life cycle cost of asphalt pavements. Bitumen ageing is an unavoidable process for asphalt surface layer, and it shortens the service life and increases the risk of distress of asphalt pavements. A large number of studies have been conducted on the consequences of asphalt surface layer ageing under ambient environmental conditions. However, the development of asphalt mixture performance under Norwegian conditions and ageing model for the in-service bitumen have not been extensively investigated. Therefore, this work aims to investigate asphalt surface layer performance over service time and establish ageing model for the in-service bitumen. To achieve this goal, core samples acquired from the field and bitumen extracted from in-service field cores were analysed by comparing them with reference bitumen and asphalt mixtures. The physical, chemical, viscoelastic and performance grade variables of the bitumen were characterised, as well as the dynamic modulus and density of asphalt mixtures. The ageing models for bitumen property parameters were established using bitumen type, service time and average annual temperature as independent variables after statistical data processing. As a result, a good agreement between predicted values and measured values of property parameters was achieved because of the high accuracy of prediction of the ageing model. The proposed ageing model for bitumen under Norwegian conditions is beneficial for predicting bitumen properties at specific service time.

In this study, pavement layers’ elastic moduli obtained from different deflection devices were compared. This was based on measurements with the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD), Traffic Speed Deflectometer (TSD) and Rapid Pavement Tester (Raptor) at four road sections in the Norwegian road network. An elastic back-calculation software system called EBS was introduced to compare the results. Also, a new viscoelastic back-calculation procedure was performed on TSD data using the ViscoRoute software. The findings of this study demonstrate the limitations of the elastic approach in capturing the viscoelastic characteristics of pavement layers. The proposed viscoelastic back-calculation procedure marks a preliminary effort to integrate dynamic modulus calculation into the Pavement Management System, potentially leading to more cost-effective maintenance strategies.

As of now, there are no standard guidelines for implementing data from Traffic Speed Deflection Devices (TSDDs) into Pavement Management Systems (PMS). This is primarily due to the complexities in analysing TSDD data. Several variables might potentially influence TSDD measurements. This study evaluates the effect of changing loading configurations, moving speed, temperature and pavement structure characteristics on the measurements of TSDDs through software modelling. The viscoelastic behaviour of the surface layer and the dynamic loads applied by all the vehicle axles are reflected in the modelling process. It is shown that pavement temperature can significantly affect TSDD measurements, primarily by changing the modulus of asphalt layer. At speeds exceeding 60 km/h, the effect of vehicle speed on TSDD measurements is negligible. Among the pavement structure characteristics, the subgrade modulus has a significant effect on TSDDs' deflection basin. Also, this study demonstrates device-specific models for estimating critical strains from TSDD data. The proposed models are validated using field measurements from a road in the Norwegian road network.

This study intends to compare deflections obtained from traffic speed deflection devices (TSDDs) with the deflections of the falling weight deflectometer (FWD). For this purpose, deflections were measured on five sections of three roads in the Norwegian road network using traffic speed deflectometer (TSD) and rapid pavement tester (Raptor). Deflections were also measured using FWD at three different temperatures and the curves of FWD deflections versus temperature (FWD temperature-dependent deflection curves) were obtained. These curves were used to correct the effect of temperature difference. It was shown that both TSD and Raptor have the potential to detect structural deficiencies; however, TSD had better consistency with FWD with regard to deflection values and deflection basin parameters. A refinement was then made to make the Raptor data more consistent with FWD data. Calculating bearing capacity before and after refinement revealed that refining Raptor data can substantially increase the consistency between Raptor and FWD.

The road sector is actively exploring strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by investigating the potential use of local and recycled materials, including quarry waste sand. This study presents the results of frost heave and repeated load triaxial tests conducted on fully characterized Norwegian quarry waste sands. The tests examined the effects of two nontraditional additives, lignosulfonate and organosilane, on the engineering properties of the quarry waste sands. Thermal conductivity tests were also performed on untreated samples. The quarry waste sands, including gneiss, gabbro, quartz-diorite, limestone, and granite, exhibited varying fine contents ranging from 7% to 28%. A thermal conductivity model was validated with R2 values ranging from 0.87 to 0.99. The frost susceptibility was found to be reduced by 65% in samples treated with 1% additive content, and further improvements of 85% at a 2% concentration. Moreover, the addition of 1.5% lignosulfonate or 0.5% organosilane significantly improved the resilient modulus, elastic stiffness, and resistance to permanent deformation in all samples. These findings highlight the improved frost protection and mechanical properties of the stabilized quarry waste sands, contributing to enhanced pavement stability and longevity. Furthermore, incorporating lignosulfonate additives in quarry waste sands offers a promising solution for environmentally sustainable road construction. Further research, including comprehensive field-testing and life-cycle cost analyses, is recommended to assess the economic, technical, and environmental aspects of these additives.

The implementation of mechanistic-empirical design (ME-design) and pavement prediction tools for Norwegian national roads introduced a need for characterization of standardized pavement materials. The current Norwegian pavement design system for public roads is empirical and does not differentiate on stiffness for subbase materials of crushed rock (CR) with different grading or maximum particle size. Hence, laboratory and in-situ testing were initiated to characterize the stiffness of coarse unbound granular materials (UGMs) used in road construction. This research paper addresses the in-situ characterization with static plate loading test (PLT). Three sections, each with different subbase materials, were constructed and tested in parallel: Section 1 consists of 60 cm open-graded CR 22/125 (lower sieve size/upper sieve size); Section 2 consist of 60 cm dense-graded CR 0/ 125 mm; and Section 3 comprises 10 cm dense-graded CR 0/32 mm + 50 cm open-graded CR 22/125 mm. The natural subgrade was composed of silty clay overlaid with two layers of improved subgrade of gravel and sand to level out local variations in stiffness. The PLTs were conducted according to the Norwegian test standard R211 using a 300-mm plate. In addition, PLTs were conducted according to the German standard DIN 18134 using 600-mm and 762-mm plates. The results show an average of 12-15 % higher stiffness for the dense-graded aggregate CR 0/125 mm in Section 2 than for the open-graded aggregate CR 22/125 mm in Section 1. Section 3 was designed to evaluate the influence of the thickness of a dense-graded interlocking layer on the opengraded CR 22/125 mm. The stiffness in Section 3 was on average 19-34 % higher than that in Section 1, showing a significant influence related to the thickness of the interlocking layer.

Abstract The implementation of building information modeling (BIM), enabling the creation of digital database files containing semantic representation of civil structures and infrastructures, also concerns the field of road engineering. Differently from highly trafficked motorways, low-volume roads (LVRs) represent the largest part of the global road network, and this type of transportation infrastructure has received minimal attention in terms of BIM implementation in academic research. This work investigates the coordinated use of digital tools to enable the renewal of LVRs according to an integrated framework comprising georeferencing, alignment tracing, estimation of quantity take-offs, and evaluation of mechanical response as well as service life. This study ascertains a repeatable workflow using five systems: Autodesk InfraWorks, Autodesk Civil 3D, Autodesk Dynamo, COMSOL Multiphysics, and MATLAB. The research considers the rehabilitation of a Norwegian LVR located in Våler municipality as an application case study, the aim of which is to renew the road pavement by employing new aggregates for its reconstruction. This work assumes that the mechanical properties of the road construction materials are evaluated in the laboratory by means of repeated load triaxial tests. In this regard, six scenarios are envisaged: unstabilized, stabilized by a traditional binder (bitumen), and stabilized by four nontraditional polymeric binders (polyurethane, acrylate, styrene butadiene, and acetate). All five stabilization techniques lead to economic savings and improved mechanical performance. Compared with bitumen-treated aggregates, the adoption of nontraditional binders entails a longer road service life, although at a higher cost.

The dominant load-induced damages, permanent deformation (PD) and fatigue cracking (F), are traditionally predicted separately by taking temperature as a variable of departure. This paper presents an experimental study of the two damages and interaction using sequential test procedure (STP) based on 'sequential damage'. The STP is conducted in PD-F and F-PD sequences on each specimen using a creep-recovery and cyclic fatigue tests. The effect of strain hardening on fatigue cracking is studied in the PD-F sequence, and the impact of fatigue cracking on permanent deformation is explored using the F-PD sequence. First, the shear deformation in tertiary stage of creep recovery is investigated using the dissipated energy ratio criterion and a new fourth creep phase is obtained. Following the PD-F sequence, strain-hardening is found a significant accelerator of fatigue damage rate, particularly on aged and laboratory produced mixes. The fatigue tests without considering the strain-hardening effect underestimate fatigue damage rate. In the F-PD sequence, the effect of pre-existing crack (up to 40% modulus reduction) on permanent deformation is found marginal. The sequential test and damage approach is an effective way to analyze interaction between damage modes and evaluate asphalt mixtures.

As a preventive maintenance method, microwave self-healing is an effective method for early repairing small cracks in asphalt mixture, reducing maintenance costs and prolonging service life. However, asphalt mixtures containing aggregate-type wave-absorbing agents have a common problem of uneven heating. Asphalt mixture was prepared by partially replacing the limestone filler with ferroferric oxide (Fe3O4, FO), and the healing performance under microwave heating was studied. The rheological properties of asphalt mortars with FO and the fluidity of conventional asphalt mortars were studied by dynamic shear rheometer (DSR). Then, the magnetostatic properties and electromagnetic parameters of FO fillers were analyzed by vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) and vector network analyzer (VNA). Finally, the semicircular bending (SCB) samples were studied by the breaking-microwave healing experiment. The results show that FO fillers have obvious ferromagnetism, and they mainly rely on magnetic loss for energy conversion. FO is beneficial to the improvement of high temperature rheological properties of asphalt mortar but not to low temperature rheological parameters; the replacement ratio of FO to limestone filler should not exceed 50%. The flow healing behavior of asphalt mortar is greatly affected by temperature, which is the fundamental reason for the self-healing of asphalt mixture. The heating efficiency of the asphalt mixture containing FO filler is significantly improved under microwave irradiation; the FO filler has a slightly negative effect on the initial strength of SCB samples but can significantly improve the healing rate after microwave.

High-viscosity asphalt binder is a key material for porous asphalt pavement, but its susceptibility to aging limits its applications. Three recycled-based high-viscosity binders (RHBs), including RH-1, RH-2, and RH-3, were prepared by recycled rubber powder (RRP), recycled polyethylene (RPE), and waste vegetable oil (WVO), and compared with SINO TAFPACK-SUPER (SINO-TPS) high-viscosity asphalt (THA). The feasibility of recycling waste to prepare high-viscosity asphalt was verified by viscosity test, storage stability test, and thermogravimetric (TG) test. The rheological properties and aging resistance of binders were investigated by dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The results showed that the storage stability of RHBs is close to that of THA, and the viscosity is higher than that of THA but meets the specification requirements of high-viscosity asphalt binder. In addition, RRP/RPE can improve the high-temperature performance of the binder, and the addition of RRP/WVO can reduce the negative effect of low-temperature cracking of RPE. According to the changes of functional group index and binder molecular size in different aging states, ternary recycling waste can significantly improve the aging resistance of binders. The findings in this work contribute to reducing waste pollution and provides a method for high-viscosity asphalt binder production.