Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents and effluents are known to contain contaminants of emerging concerns (CECs), including surfactants, industrial chemicals, and pharmaceuticals (Freeling et al., 2019; Lenka et al., 2021). WWTP involve numerous steps, e.g., aeration, that may facilitate the transfer of these compounds to the atmosphere through aerosolisation or volatilisation. Understanding the fate of these pollutants during wastewater treatment is important, as it could inform emission pathways, atmospheric exposure, and potential environmental and human health impacts.In this study, particulate matter (PM, total suspended particles) samples collected from the grit chamber, secondary settler, and a staff building at a WWTP in Brazil were analysed using high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based targeted and non-targeted approaches. Targeted analysis demonstrated both legacy and new generation per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in PM samples, with perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) dominating the PFAS profiles, indicating continued inputs of these compounds into wastewater cycles years after regulatory restrictions.Non-targeted analysis (NTA) revealed the presence of a broad range of CECs, including nitroaromatics, insecticides, personal care products, and industrial intermediates. Semi-targeted analysis of the PM samples identified the highest abundance of 4-nitrophenol (a nitroaromatic compound with known adverse effects on climate and health) in the grit-chamber samples.Overall, our results emphasise that WWT processes may represent a potential source of PFAS and other CECs to the atmosphere. Reference:Lenka, S. P., Kah, M., & Padhye, L. P. (2021). A review of the occurrence, transformation, and removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in wastewater treatment plants. Water Research, 199, 117187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117187Freeling, F., Alygizakis, N. A., von der Ohe, P. C., Slobodnik, J., Oswald, P., Aalizadeh, R., Cirka, L., Thomaidis, N. S., & Scheurer, M. (2019). Occurrence and potential environmental risk of surfactants and their transformation products discharged by wastewater treatment plants. Science of The Total Environment, 681, 475-487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.445

Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a class of toxic compounds often referred to as “forever chemicals”, are increasingly detected in the atmosphere. Aerosolisation from contaminated aqueous reservoirs has been proposed as a pathway for atmospheric PFAS, drawing analogy to sea-spray processes and supported by their elevated concentrations reported near sewage treatment facilities (Kizhakkethil et al., 2025). However, aerosolisation and particle formation in anthropogenically impacted waters differ fundamentally from marine systems, and the physico chemical controls governing PFAS aerosolisation outside the marine context remain poorly understood.The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of PFAS molecular properties, including carbon chain length and functional groups, on aerosolisation from contaminated aqueous solutions. Experiments were conducted in the Chamber for Aerosol Modelling and Bio-aerosol Research (ChAMBRe), Italy. Twenty five PFAS, covering short, medium and long chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids, perfluoroalkane sulfonates, fluorotelomer sulfonates and emerging alternatives representative of wastewater impacted environments were investigated. The role of bioaerosol seed particles commonly present in such environments was also assessed, as they could act as sinks or carriers for highly surface active PFAS and thereby influence their aerosol phase distribution.Aerosol mass size distributions revealed a strong dependence on molecular structure, indicating compound-specific particle-phase behaviour. The presence of biological particles did not systematically alter PFAS size-resolved distributions, suggesting that the studied PFAS exhibited limited interaction with bioaerosols and remained predominantly in the submicron size range under the investigated conditions, which may favour their atmospheric persistence and long-range transport.Overall, these findings indicate that primary aerosol formation from contaminated aqueous systems represents a chemically selective pathway for introducing PFAS into the organic aerosol, with size-resolved characteristics governed primarily by molecular properties and aerosol formation processes.Reference: Kizhakkethil, J. P., Shi, Z., Bogush, A., and Kourtchev, I.: Measurement report: Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in particulate matter (PM10) from activated sludge aeration, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 5947–5958, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-5947-2025, 2025.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) or "forever chemicals" have been increasingly detected in the atmosphere across urban, rural, and remote areas, raising the possibility of atmospheric exposure to humans. However, their exact emission sources to the atmosphere are poorly understood. Here, we investigated the atmospheric particulate matter (PM) associated emissions of restricted and new generation PFAS from the pre-treatment (grit chamber) and secondary settling steps of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). 12 PFAS including restricted perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluoroocatnesulfonic acid (PFOS), were detected in the PM samples. PFOS was the most abundant PFAS detected at all sampling points, with mean concentrations of 5.7 ± 1.7 pg/m3, 0.42 ± 0.42 pg/m3, and 0.60 ± 0.25 pg/m3, in the grit-chamber, secondary settler, and staff building samples, respectively. The presence of PM bound PFOS and PFOA, which have been restricted for several years, raises concerns about their possible continued use and input into sewage systems. The complementary non-targeted analysis (NTA) of the grit-chamber samples and suspect screening of secondary settler and staff building samples revealed 14 additional tentatively identified organic compounds, including insecticides, metabolites, and industrial chemicals. Among these, 4-nitrophenol (confirmed with the authentic standard), a key brown carbon component linked to adverse health effects and cloud condensation activity, was detected in PM for the first time in both pre-treatment and secondary settling steps. These findings reveal a previously unrecognised source of atmospheric PFAS and 4-nitrophenol, with important implications for exposure and risk assessment.

Fog formation over tropical forests remains poorly characterized, despite its potential role in bioaerosol dispersion and ecosystem processes. Here, we analyzed fog samples collected at the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory using flow cytometry and culture-based techniques to characterize viable microbial communities. Microbial cell concentrations varied over an order of magnitude across 13 fog events, reaching up to 8 & times; 104 cells per ml of fog water. Flow cytometry consistently detected metabolically active cells, while culturing and mass spectrometry-based identification yielded eight viable bacterial species and seven fungal taxa. The bacteria Serratia marcescens, Ralstonia pickettii and Sphingomonas paucimobilis exhibited seasonal variations in prevalence. The fungal species identified were primarily mesophilic saprophytes and endophytes, commonly associated with soil and plant surfaces. Our findings indicate that fog harbors viable microbes, including Serratia marcescens and Ralstonia pickettii, which may imply a relevance of fog for microbial dispersal, colonization and nutrient cycling in the Amazon rainforest.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are recognised as atmospheric contaminants, yet processes governing their aerosol formation, size distribution, and interactions with atmospheric particle surfaces remain unknown. We investigated aerosolisation and size-resolved behaviour of 25 PFAS covering short-, medium-, and long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCA), perfluoroalkane sulfonates, fluorotelomer sulfonates and emerging alternatives. Experiments were conducted under controlled chamber conditions using a water-organic solvent system, in the absence/presence of the model bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens seed to investigate the potential influence of microbial presence on PFAS behaviour. Most PFAS exhibited unimodal mass-size distributions peaking at 0.3 & micro;m, indicating dominant association with the fine mode. Sulfonated PFAS showed broadly similar aerosol-phase concentrations regardless of carbon-chain length, whereas PFCA displayed increasing aerosolisation with chain length. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) showed additional ultrafine enrichment, 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS) and sodium 4,8-dioxa-3H-perfluorononanoate (NaDONA) exhibited broader size profiles, suggesting compound-specific effects linked to volatility and interfacial behaviour. Pseudomonas fluorescens seed did not enhance PFAS aerosol concentrations through condensation or heterogeneous uptake onto bacterial particles or shift in modal diameters, and no enrichment was observed at bacterial size mode, indicating limited PFAS-bioaerosol association under the tested conditions. Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry (MPPD) modelling based on the measured size distributions predicted substantial deposition of the aerosol-bound PFAS in the pulmonary region, particularly for compounds enriched in ultrafine particles. Our findings indicate that PFAS aerosol behaviour in mixed-solvent systems is controlled primarily by physical droplet generation and evaporation, with implications for airborne transport and inhalation exposure from contaminated aqueous sources.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are ubiquitous synthetic chemicals, known pollutants and health hazards. Due to their adverse health effects, including those associated with inhalation exposure, PAEs have been relatively well studied in outdoor particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 mu m (PM2.5). However, limited data exist on indoor emissions of PAEs, despite the fact that nearly 90 % of human daily activities occur indoors, indicating a potential gap in understanding human exposure to those pollutants. This pilot study aimed to perform a preliminary assessment on the presence of six priority PAEs and the alternative plasticiser bis-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) in indoor PM2.5 from three offices in the UK and Brazil. DEHP (bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), was consistently detected in PM2.5 (with concentrations up to 34 ng/m(3)) from all studied offices. DEHP concentrations had consistently low airborne variability, especially within the occupied offices, suggesting that human activities could facilitate the continuous resuspension of DEHP-bound particles, maintaining a steady-state indoor concentration. Although mean DEHP levels in all studied offices were below the UK HSE workplace exposure limit, they represent a continuous chronic exposure source not accounted for by industrial safety standards. Reliance on oral reference values due to unavailability of inhalation reference standards for PAEs may underestimate risks due to route-specific metabolic differences. The study provides the first region specific data from the UK and Brazil suggesting indoor environments as contributors to PM2.5-bound DEHP exposure, highlighting the need for more systematic and long-term monitoring initiatives.

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent chemicals that may pose risks to ecosystems and human health. Understanding the environmental fate and transport of PFAS is challenging due to their ability to migrate across air, water, and soil. In surface waters, PFAS can interact with sediments, organic matter, and plants, influencing the mobility of these compounds and posing potential risks to the environment. This study provides the first analysis of the adsorption of PFAS, including perfluoro-carboxylic acids (PFCA, C4–C10), perfluoro-sulfonic acids (PFSA, C4–C8), per-/poly-fluoroalkylether acids (PFEA C4-C8) and fluorotelomer sulfonates (FTS, C8 and C10) to medium-sized quartz gravel (pebbles), commonly found in the UK river systems. The effects of exposure time (1, 3 and 7 days) and mechanical disturbance (shaking) on PFAS adsorption were evaluated. The degree of PFAS adsorption indicated a clear dependence on the compound’s functional group and carbon chain length. Long-chain PFAS, perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), exhibited the highest adsorption, while PFCA showed the least sorption compared to corresponding PFEA, PFSA and FTS of homologues (C5–C8). Mechanical disturbance (shaking) of gravel in PFAS-contaminated water did not significantly influence the extent of adsorption on most of the studied analytes except 9 Cl-PF3OUdS, 8:2 FTS, and PFDA, onto the gravel. The study demonstrates, for the first time, that medium-sized quartz gravel can adsorb PFAS, including new-generation substitutes from water. In riverine systems, these pollutants can be remobilised from gravel surfaces during e.g., flooding, dredging, or changes in water chemistry, potentially reintroducing them into the water and impacting water quality and ecosystem.

The increasing volume of electronic waste (e-waste) is a significant global environmental and public health concern. Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are used as plasticisers in insulation coatings of electric materials, and if not effectively separated in preliminary recycling processes and enter pyrometallurgical processes, can lead to unintentional PAE emissions. Understanding these emissions is crucial for assessing potential environmental and health risks, as well as for developing effective recycling and emission control strategies. Most current analytical methods have limitations for estimating airborne PAE emissions during e-waste pyrolysis as they either rely on offline sampling and preparation potentially introducing uncertainties and contamination from ubiquitous environmental PAEs or employ online techniques that have relatively high limits of detection (LOD). In this work, we developed, validated, and applied a new quantitative online single-shot pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) method for analysis of PAEs, including di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP) in e-waste matrices. The effect of pyrolysis settings, including temperature and sample residence time, on PAE chromatographic responses were assessed. The chromatographic responses of DEHA, DEHP, and DOP demonstrated good linearity (R2 > 0.990) over 0.1 ng to 20 ng, with LODs ranging from 0.56 to 0.68 ng. The method showed acceptable accuracy and precision (% coefficient of variation, CV and relative error, RE < 20%). Matrix effects showed a strong impact on the analysis, requiring the use of an increased split sample ratio, and correction strategies to minimise bias. The validated method was successfully applied to three representative electronic matrices: a thermocouple cable, an electrolytic capacitor, and a film capacitor, where DEHP and DOP emissions ranged from 3 to 30 mg kg-1. This study presents the development and application of a quantitative analytical method, for the first time, to estimate DEHA, DEHP, and DOP in representative e-waste matrices using a single-shot Py-GC-MS.

Pollen-induced allergic diseases are on the rise globally with recent studies pointing towards climate change co-factors potentially influencing pollen seasons and pollen load. This study investigated the hydration-induced rupturing behaviour and allergenic potential of pollen belonging to species of ryegrass (Lolium perenne), golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) and pine (Pinus radiata). Using an in vitro model of human bronchial epithelial cells (Calu-3), this study evaluated cellular responses upon exposure to pollen extracts through multiple experimental approaches. Initial hydration experiments revealed species-specific rupturing patterns. Ryegrass pollen demonstrated the highest rupture propensity (38% immediately upon hydration), with increased rupturing over time and enhanced effects in acidic conditions. Wattle exhibited moderate rupturing that plateaued after 10 min, while pine pollen showed minimal rupturing (≤2%). Nebulisation of hydrated pollen-water suspensions generated distinct aerosol profiles, with ryegrass producing significant numbers of sub-pollen particles in the respirable range. Cell viability of Calu-3 cells showed varied concentration-dependent responses among pollen species. Pine pollen induced the most significant reduction in cell viability (51% at 25 mg/mL pollen extract concentration), followed by ryegrass and wattle pollen. Notably, ryegrass pollen uniquely triggered substantial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, with rates increasing up to 33.8 times greater than controls at 25 mg/mL pollen extract concentration. This elevated ROS generation correlated with increased group 5 grass allergen (Phl p 5) levels (53.8 ng/mL at 25 mg/mL pollen extract concentration), suggesting a potential mechanistic link. In contrast, cell viability of Calu-3 cells was greater than 70% in the presence of wattle pollen with only a slight increase in cellular ROS generation, suggesting other mechanisms are involved in maintaining cell viability in this species. This research establishes a foundation for understanding cellular responses to pollen extracts of different species, including the impact of physical characteristics (rupture propensity and sub-pollen particle generation) and biochemical properties (ROS induction and allergen content), which can both contribute to overall allergic potential. The species-specific responses identified will also have important implications for clinical management strategies, particularly in the context of changing climate conditions.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) such as dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), bis-2(ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl Phthalate (DOP) are synthetic chemicals used as solvent stabilisers and plasticizers in commercial and industrial products. Emerging literature suggests that semi-volatile PAEs (e.g., DEHP) could be toxic to human lung cells, but atmospheric concentration regulations on PAEs remain limited. This work evaluated the individual and combined toxicity of prolonged exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of DMP, DEP, DEHP, and DOP (10 μM - 1 mM) on Calu-3 human sub-bronchial gland cells. Individual exposure to the tested PAEs yielded the following maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) at 24 h (4.46 mM DMP, 2.05 mM DEP), 72 h (3.07 mM DMP, 927 μM DEP), and 168 h (418 μM DMP, 106 μM DEP, 343 μM DEHP, 400 μM DOP). Concentration addition and independent action toxicity models predicted synergism and additive effects, respectively, at 72 h exposure with the DMP-DEP combination. Cellular oxygen (O2) consumption was measured via high-resolution respirometry. Exposure of live cells to individual or binary mixtures of PAEs inhibited cellular O2 consumption in a concentration specific manner, indicating direct inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory flux. The results of this work raise a concern on potential long-term adverse effects of atmospheric levels of DMP, DEP, and DOP on the human respiratory system. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the cytotoxic effects of prolonged exposure to DMP, DEP, and DOP and the first to assess the toxicity of binary mixtures of DMP-DEP and DEHP-DOP in a human lung cell line. The results also raise a concern about whether current workroom air quality regulations set to a maximum of 5 mg/m3 on DMP, DEP, and DEHP are safe for human health.

The widespread occurrence of new and emerging and persistent organic pollutants (NEPs and POPs) in surface water poses a risk to drinking water supply and consequently human health. The aim of this work was to investigate the occurrence and potential transport of 42 target NEPs and POPs (including per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), pharmaceuticals, pesticides and bisphenols) along the rural and urban environments of three rivers in England. The type and concentrations of pollutants varied between the sampling days and points. Two pharmaceuticals (diclofenac and ibuprofen), two pesticides (diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) and prosulfocarb) and a range of PFAS were detected above the method detection limit. The observed PFAS include restricted perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and a newer generation substitute 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTS). The levels of PFOS and diclofenac observed in all studied rivers exceeded the European environmental quality standard (EQS). PFOS and diclofenac high detection frequency in the river Ouse suggests their persistence and potential to contaminate connecting tributaries. An assessment of the ecological risk of prosulfocarb levels in the samples from river Ouse, using the risk quotient method, showed a potential risk to algae, planktonic crustaceans, and fish. Our results suggest that the presence of 12 NEPs and POPs, could potentially be influenced by anthropogenic activities across urban and rural environments of the studied rivers. The study highlights the need for continuous monitoring of restricted and new-generation chemicals in the surface waters to understand their impact on the ecosystem and public health.

There has been an industrial shift towards replacing legacy per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) with perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic and sulfonic acids (PFECA and PFESA) including hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), also known as GenX. These compounds have been detected in the atmosphere but their potential sources remain poorly understood. In this study, aerosolisation of six PFECA and PFESA from PFAS-contaminated water at concentrations and pHs representative of industrial sewage was investigated. All studied PFECA and PFESA were observed in the aerosols from the aeration of PFAS-fortified water at pH 6, 7 and 8. The aerosolisation behaviour of PFECA and PFESA increased with the analyte's carbon chain length and was influenced by the PFAS functional groups and pH of the aerated solution. PFESA with sulfonic acid groups aerosolised more from the solutions than PFECA with carboxylic acid groups. The ability of new generation PFAS to transfer from contaminated waters and become airborne (aerosolise up to a mass fraction 30.4 +/- 2.7 %) raises concerns due to their potential health and environmental impacts. Our findings indicate that industrial and water management processes involving aeration of water contaminated with PFECA and PFESA could serve as potential sources of new-generation atmospheric PFAS.

The global proliferation of synthetic chemicals has led to the widespread and continuous release of Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) into the environment. CECs include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products and other industrial chemicals that pose a significant risk to both ecosystems and human health. Regulatory frameworks have predominantly targeted aquatic systems; however, mounting evidence reveals the capacity of many CECs to volatilise, aerosolise and undergo atmospheric transport. This perspective highlights the overlooked atmospheric dimension of CECs and analyses the key physicochemical parameters governing their transfer to the atmospheric domain. The results indicate that many CECs can mobilise from water or soil and undergo atmospheric transport in both the gas-and particle-phase, crossing between several environmental continua as a result. While intrinsic properties such as vapour pressure and partitioning coefficients are central to this analysis, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and transformation reactions further modulate the environmental fate and impact of CECs. We emphasise the need for environmental monitoring and regulatory frameworks to incorporate air as a critical vector for CEC dispersion and exposure. Key research priorities identified measurements of CECs in the atmosphere, further development of predictive models, and toxicity evaluation of airborne CECs to better inform policy for protecting public and environmental health.

Introduction Poly- and perfluoro alkyl substances (PFASs), also known as “forever chemicals”, are persistent in the environment and are challenging to eliminate. There is a growing concern over their widespread presence in the environment and potential adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. Most of the current studies on PFAS pollution are related to aqueous and soil matrices while less emphasis has been given to their relevance to air quality. Several recent studies reported presence of PFASs in atmosphere; however, their atmospheric sources, especially for restricted for more than a decade perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), are not well understood (e.g. Kourtchev et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2021). Wastewater treatment (WWT) plants are repositories of 1000s of pollutants including PFASs (Barisci & Suri, 2021). Aerosolisation/volatilisation during WWT processes (e.g., aeration, trickling filtration) is suggested as one of the potential sources of PFASs in the atmosphere. However, to the best of our knowledge, aerosolisation potential of PFASs was conducted on a very small number of molecules from that class and under relevant to other than WWT processes conditions e.g., seaspray. The aim of this work is to investigate, for the first time, the aerosolisation potential of the extensive number of PFASs from contaminated waters under relevant to WWT plant conditions.Method and resultsAerosolisation potential of PFASs, covering short-, medium- and long-chain compounds and including legacy PFOA, PFOS and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), was examined by aerating PFAS-fortified aqueous solutions at relevant to wastewater effluent concentrations and pHs in an aeration chamber. The generated PFAS-enriched aerosol was collected onto a prebaked glass fiber filter and methanolic solution using a filter pack, and an impinger. The samples were extracted and analysed using an on-line solid phase extraction (SPE) liquid chromatography (LC)-Orbitrap-Mass spectrometry (MS). The PFAS decay from the fortified aqueous solutions were also monitored to understand the extent of PFAS partitioning onto aerosol.Our study indicates that a significant fraction of PFASs can be aerosolised from the contaminated water. This effect was more pronounced for long-chain PFASs irrespective of the pH of the contaminated water. Perfluorocarboxylic acids showed an increase in aerosol phase enrichment with increasing carbon chain length. Short chain PFASs showed lowest aerosol phase enrichment and losses from the contaminated water.ConclusionsThis study, for the first time, establishes the liquid-to-air transfer potential of 15 persistent semi-volatile PFASs including new generation replacements for legacy PFASs such as 4:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (4:2 FTS) and 8:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (8:2 FTS) via aerosolisation. The aerosolisation tendency of PFASs was found to increase with increasing carbon chain length. Legacy PFOS and PFOA were detected in the aerosol phase at alarming concentrations suggesting that the contaminated with PFAS waters exposed to aeration can be responsible for observation of “forever chemicals” in the atmosphere. Reference: Barisci and Suri, Water Sci.Technol., 84(12), 3442-3468. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2021.484Kourtchev et al. Sci. Total Environ., 835, 155496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155496Zhou et al. Environ.Sci.: Processes Impacts, 23(4), 580-587. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EM00497A

Environmental pollution with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly referred to as “forever chemicals”, received significant attention due to their environmental persistence and bioaccumulation tendencies. Effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been reported to contain significant levels of PFAS. Wastewater treatment processes such as aeration have the potential to transfer PFAS into the atmosphere. However, understanding their fate during sewage treatment remains challenging. This study aims to assess aerosolisation of PFAS during a WWTP process. Special emphasis is given to new-generation and legacy PFAS (e.g. perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA)) as they are still observed in sewage after years of restrictions. Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤10 µm (PM10) collected above a scaled-down activated sludge tank treating domestic sewage for a population of >10 000 people in the UK was analysed for a range of short-, medium-, and long-chain PFAS. Eight PFAS including perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), PFOA, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), PFOS, and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) were detected in the PM10. The presence of legacy PFOA and PFOS in the PM10 samples, despite being restricted for over a decade, raises concerns about their movement through domestic and industrial sewage cycles. The total PFAS concentrations in PM10 were 15.49 and 4.25 pg m−3 during autumn and spring campaigns, respectively. PFBA was the most abundant of the PFAS, suggesting a shift towards short-chain PFAS use. Our results suggest that wastewater treatment (WWT) processes such as activated sludge aeration could aerosolise PFAS into airborne PM.

The production and consumption of disposable face masks (DFMs) increased intensely during the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to a high amount of them being found in the terrestrial and aquatic environment. The main goal of this research study is to conduct a comparative evaluation of the water-leachability of microplastics (MPs) and chemical additives from various types of disposable surgical/medical face masks (MM DFMs) and filtering face pieces (FFPs). Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy was used for MPs analysis. Liquid Chromatography/High Resolution Mass Spectrometry was used to analyse analytes presented in the water-leachates of DFMs. FFPs released 3–4 times more microplastic particles compared to MM DFMs. The release of MPs into water from all tested DFMs without mechanical stress suggests potential MP contamination originating from the DFM production process. Our study for the first time identified bisphenol B (0.25–0.42 μg/L) and 1,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (163.9–115.0 μg/L) as leachables from MM DFMs. MPs in the water-leachates vary in size, with predominant particles <100 μm, and the release order from DFMs is MMIIR > MMII > FFP3>FFP2>MMI. The main type of microplastics identified in the water leachates of the investigated face masks was polypropylene, accounting for 93–97% for MM DFMs and 82–83% for FFPs. Other polymers such as polyethylene, polycarbonate, polyester/polyethylene terephthalate, polyamide/Nylon, polyvinylchloride, and ethylene-propylene copolymer were also identified, but in smaller amounts. FFPs released a wider variety and a higher percentage (17–18%) of other polymers compared to MM DFMs (3–7%). Fragments and fibres were identified in all water-leachate samples, and fragments, particularly debris of polypropylene fibres, were the most common MP morphotype. The findings in this study are important in contributing additional data to develop science-based policy recommendations on the health and environmental impacts of MPs and associated chemical additives originated from DFMs.

Phthalates or phthalic acid esters (PAE) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) are ubiquitous chemicals often used as plasticisers and additives in many industrial products and are classified as both persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and new emerging pollutants (NEPs). Exposure to these chemicals, especially through inhalation, is linked to a wide range of negative health effects, including endocrine disruption. Air particulate matter (PM) with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm can be enriched with PAEs and DEHA and if inhaled can cause multi-system human toxicity. Therefore, proper monitoring of PAEs and DEHA in PM is required to assess human exposure to these pollutants. In this work, we developed and validated a new and sensitive gas-chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) method for targeted analysis of PAEs including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA), bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), in PM. Analytical aspects including sample preparation steps and GC-HRMS parameters, e.g., quadrupole isolation window, to enhance method sensitivity have been assessed. The estimated limit of detection (LODs) of target PAEs and DEHA ranged from 5.5 to 17 pg μL-1, allowing their trace-level detection in PM. Extraction efficiencies of 78-101% were obtained for the target compounds. Low DMP and DEP extraction efficiencies from the spiked filter substrates indicated that significant losses of higher volatility PAEs can occur during the sample collection when filter-based techniques are used. This work is the first targeted method based on GC-Orbitrap MS for PAEs and DEHA in environmental samples. The validated method was successfully applied for the targeted analysis of PAEs and DEHA in PM2.5 samples from the eighth most populous city in Brazil, Curitiba. This work is the first to report DBP, DEHA, DEHP, and DOP in urban PM from Brazil. The observed concentrations of PAEs (up to 29 ng m-3) in PM2.5 from Curitiba may not represent the extent of pollution by these toxic compounds since the analysed samples were collected during a COVID-19 restriction when anthropogenic activities were reduced.