Results of measuring the static magnetic susceptibilities in liquid sulfur are interpreted with the help of a general polymerisation theory. Evidence is found that at high temperatures threefold bonded atoms become important. In S doped with Se and Te the independent bond model is applicable above 550 °C. We also give magnetic susceptibility data for theS-Tl system.

The motional-correlation time ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{m}$ of very dilute Cd impurities in liquid Se was found by measuring the perturbed-angular-correlation of $\ensuremath{\gamma}$ rays from $^{111}\mathrm{Cd}$ following the decay of $^{111}\mathrm{In}$. The measured correlation time varies from 2 \ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{} ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}10}$ sec at 500\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}C to 2 \ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{} ${10}^{\ensuremath{-}11}$ sec at 900\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}C. From 500 to 800\ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}C ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{m}\ensuremath{\propto}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{{E}_{m}}{\mathrm{kT}})$ where ${E}_{m}=0.36$ eV (8.3 kcal/mole). It is shown that the ${\ensuremath{\tau}}_{m}$ thus measured represents a lower limit for the Se-Se and Se-Cd bond lifetimes.

Dynamic gas velocity and pressure effects on breakdown potential of argon flow between flat parallel plate electrodes

The magnetic susceptibility and Knight shift changes caused by 3d transitional impurities in liquid aluminium are reported. The observed effects are interpreted in terms of enhanced polarization of core electrons by the applied field.

J. A. Smythe, F. G. Soper, Alex. M. Smith, A. J. Allmand, J. A. Gardner, F. H. Carr, R. S. Morrell and R. Seligman, J. Chem. Soc., 1944, 40 DOI: 10.1039/JR9440000040

J. A. Gardner and H. N. Rydon, J. Chem. Soc., 1938, 45 DOI: 10.1039/JR9380000045

The first page of this article is displayed as the abstract.

A. C. D. Rivett, E. A. Evans, W. H. Mills, Wm. Rintoul, E. Hope, R. Brightman and J. A. Gardner, J. Chem. Soc., 1934, 559 DOI: 10.1039/JR9340000559

In Part XII of this series (1921) the comparison was made of the intake and output of cholesterol in normal adults on a known diet and over periods of six days, and an average daily loss of 0·3 grm. of cholesterol was noted. The conclusion drawn was that there must be some organ in the body capable of synthesising cholesterol. A similar view has been put forward by Grigaut (1913), who expressed the opinion that this synthesis is the function of the suprarenal glands. It seemed likely that the study of the autolysis of various tissues under aseptic conditions might throw some light on this question. A number of observations bearing on this subject are described in the literature, some undertaken with the object of finding evidence of the presence of enzymes capable of hydrolysing cholesterol esters, others with the object of ascertaining whether destruction or synthesis of cholesterol took place on autolysis. The results are very conflicting.

In previous papers of this series evidence has been brought forward showing that cholesterol is a substance which is strictly conserved in the animal organism, and that waste of cholesterol can be made up from the food taken by the animal. Whether cholesterol can, to any extent, be synthesised in the organism from proteins, fats or carbohydrates, it is difficult to ascertain. It seemed likely that evidence on this point might be obtained by comparing the cholesterol content of eggs and newly hatched chickens, by studying the change of the cholesterol content with growth, and also by ascertaining whether chickens could be reared and would thrive on food deprived of its cholesterol and phytosterol. Parke, as long ago as 1867, found that the quantity of matter which could be extracted by both ether and alcohol from the yolk of hen’s eggs diminished during incubation, and he stated that cholesterol changes similarly. In 1908, L. B. Mendel and Leavenworth published the results of some experiments to determine whether cholesterol is produced during the development of the eggs, and found that no increase took place, but that the cholesterol appeared to decrease, in part, in company with the rest of the lipoid substances. In Part IV of this series Ellis and Gardner concluded from a large number of analyses of eggs and chickens that in the differentiation of the ovum into the complex aggregates of cells constituting the chicken no formation of cholesterol takes place. Whether the cholesterol of the egg remained unchanged or whether some loss occurred could not be definitely decided. In this paper we give an account of our experiments on the growth of chickens under various diets, and comparisons of the cholesterol and cholesterol ester content of day-old chicks, and chicks at various stages of growth. Method of Estimation of the Cholesterol . The weighed chickens were minced in a mincing machine and the minced mass was pounded up in a mortar with sand and sufficient plaster of Paris to cause the whole to set after a time to a dry mass, which was powdered and then extracted with ether in a Soxhlet’s apparatus for about a fortnight. The ethereal solution of the extract was made up to a known volume and suitable aliquot proportions taken for analysis. The analyses were made by a modification of Windaus' digitonin method devised by Fraser and Gardner.

The Journal of PhysiologyVolume 43, Issue 6 p. 401-416 ArticleFree Access The nitrogen-content of blood G. A. Buckmaster, G. A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author G. A. Buckmaster, G. A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 27 February 1912 https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1912.sp001482Citations: 2AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume43, Issue6February 27, 1912Pages 401-416 RelatedInformation

In Part VIII of this series of papers, we published analyses of the livers of rabbits fed on various diets, and also of rabbits kept in a state of inanition. The results appeared to lend support to the hypothesis previously suggested with regard to herbivora, that when cells are broken down in the normal life process, their cholesterol is not excreted as a waste product, but is utilised in the formation of new cells. A function of the liver is to break down dead cells and eliminate their cholesterol in the bile. After the bile has been passed into the intestine in the process of digestion, the cholesterol is re-absorbed, possibly in the form of esters, along with the bile salts, and is carried in the blood stream to the various centres and tissues, for re-incorporation into the constitution of new cells. In this paper we give the cholesterol contents of some of the other tissues of the animals dealt with in Part VIII, in which paper we gave a full account of the methods used in extracting the tissues, and for estimating the free and ester cholesterol. That paper also contained the detailed protocols, giving the weights of the animals during the various dietetic periods and during inanition, so that it is not necessary to refer to them in detail again. The tissues examined are blood, muscle, brain, kidney, and lung. The other organs of the rabbit were too small to be dealt with in individual animals.

In earlier papers of this series we have shown that cholesterol is never excreted in the normal fæces of herbivorous animals such as horses, cattle, sheep, and rabbits. In the case of carnivora such as dogs and cats, provided the body weight remains constant, the cholesterol excreted in the fæces can be all accounted for by that naturally ingested with the food. Klein in his experiments also arrived at a similar conclusion. Evidence was also brought forward which rendered probable the view that, in herbivora, at any rate, cholesterol is a substance which is strictly conserved in the animal economy, that when the destruction of the red blood corpuscles and possibly other cells takes place in the liver, their cholesterol is excreted in the bile, and that the cholesterol of the bile is re-absorbed in the intestine along with the bile salts, finding its way into the blood stream to be used in cell anabolism ; further, that any waste of cholesterol might be made up from that taken in with the food. This latter process would be limited in herbivorous animals by the fact that their normal food does not contain cholesterol, but isomeric substances such as phytosterol, which have to be converted into cholesterol before utilisation, and in carnivorous animals by the partial, or even complete, change of cholesterol into coprosterol which takes place under certain dietetic conditions. In man, under normal conditions, cholesterol is never excreted as such in the fæces, but always in the form of coprosterol. It seemed therefore desirable to estimate the amounts of coprosterol found in the fæces of man under various dietetic conditions. The opportunity of making such investigations was very kindly afforded us by Dr. R. H. A. Plimmer, who handed over to us the dried fæces collected during a series of experiments carried out in the Physiological Institute, University College, London, and published in the ‘Journal of Physiology,’ August 26, 1909, under the title of “ A Metabolism Experiment, with Special Reference to the Origin of Uric Acid,” by R. H. Aders Plimmer, Maxwell Dick, and Charles C. Lieb. The subject of the experiment was a healthy man, aged 39. The three diets selected were chosen so that each yielded 110 grm. protein, 240 grm. carbohydrate, and 100 grm. fat per diem. The carbohydrate and fat constituents consisted of potato and butter, and the protein constituents of (1) beefsteak, (2) egg-white, or (3) herring-roe.

The effect of breathing oxygen-rich gas mixtures on men and animals has been frequently investigated. The papers which we have consulted deal exclusively with methods in which the respiratory exchange was studied, and the general results of the more recent experiments confirm the view that there is little or no difference in metabolism, as indicated by the gaseous exchange, whether ordinary air or gas mixtures rich in oxygen are respired. A contrary opinion has been formed by some observers, such as Rosenthal ahd Lukjanow. We have been unable to find any paper later than the work of P. Bert which deals with the composition of the blood gases during oxygen inhalation. While engaged on a study of the nitrogen-content of the blood we accumulated a mass of data on the comparative quantities of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood of cats breathing air and high per­centages of oxygen. These results we bring forward in this paper. The cats were anæsthetised with urethane. The process for obtaining the samples of blood, the precautions to be taken in the evacuation of the gases by the tapless form of blood pump, were those described at length in a former paper, in which the mode of administration of oxygen has also been fully described. Respiratory tracings were taken in every case, but we do not consider it necessary to reproduce these.

In the report of the Chloroform Committee of the British Medical Association for 1910, the view is expressed that during chloroform narcosis the blood retains unimpaired up to the time of death its normal capacity of absorbing oxygen, and that if the amount of this gas diminishes in the blood, the decrease is solely due to the slowing of the respiration. This opinion is based on experiments made by J. Tissot. These indicate that when the respiration stops in an asphyxia induced by long anæsthetisation, 100 c. c. of the arterial blood of the dog may contain ad little as 0·78 c. c. and 2·83 c. c. oxygen, although samples taken at intervals during anæsthesia show only a slight fall in oxygen content, so long as the ventilation of the lung remained normal. In our experiments on the composition of the blood gases during chloroform anæsthesia, examination of the tracings of the respiratory movements during continuous inhalation of chloroform gave no indication that the progressive diminution in the amount of oxy-hæmoglobin an anæsthesia continued could be attributed to any slowing of the respiration, and none of our tracings showed any marked alteration in the frequency or amplitude of the respiratory movements. We were, therefore, unable to agree with the views expressed by Tissor. All our tracings were taken by means of a tambour applied to the chest wall in the usual way. Observations on the respiratory movements made by other observers were, as far as we can gather, made in a similar manner. It is obvious that such records afford no information which will enable an opinion to be formed with regard to the lung ventilation which is capable of precise interpretation. In order to ascertain more definitely whether the diminution in the amount of oxyhæmoglobin in chloroform narcosis was due to changes in the type or depth or respiration, or whether it was due to the direct interference by the chloroform with the function of transporting oxygen which the red corpuscles possess, we determined to investigate the pulmonary ventilation during anæthesia by means of plethysmograph. The instrument consisted of a rectangular glass box, fitting into a groove channelled in a thick slate slab forming the floor of the chamber. The box was of such a size as to comfortably hold a cat. In order to make it airtight, the groove was filled up with a stiff mixture of vaseline and beeswax. The dimensions of the box were as follows: length 67 cm., breadth 32 cm., depth 17 cm. Four holes were bored through the slate bed near the corners of the box. These were fitted with rubber corks, through which passed glass tubes of wide bore. The two holes at one end were connected with one another by a Chauveau's valve apparatus. Through a third hole, a wide tube led to a recording gasometer, made of aluminium, similar to that used by Haldane and Priestley. The drum of the gasometer was 8 cm. high, and 6·2 cm. diameter. The gasometer, carrying a light adjustable recording lever, rose and fell in a bath of paraffin oil, which appeared to possess advantages over water. The inertia of this part of the apparatus was inappreciable. The fourth hole was connected with a bottle into which a burette fitted for purposes of graduation, and this was carried out and tested in the manner described in the paper just quoted.

The Journal of PhysiologyVolume 41, Issue 1-2 p. 60-63 ArticleFree Access The gases of the arterial and venous blood of the cat George A. Buckmaster, George A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author George A. Buckmaster, George A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 11 October 1910 https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1910.sp001393Citations: 1AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume41, Issue1-2October 11, 1910Pages 60-63 RelatedInformation

From the study of the inhibitory action of the sera of rabbits fed on diets containing varying amounts of cholesterol on the hæmolysis of blood by saponin we were led to the conclusion, in an earlier paper of this series, that when cholesterol, free or in the form of esters, is given with the food of rabbits some is absorbed and finds its way into the blood stream as free cholesterol; and also that when phytosterol is used instead of cholesterol it behaves similarly, and some appears in the blood either itself or in the form of cholesterol. The method adopted in these experiments only gave information as to the amount of free cholesterol under various conditions; but not as to us to the amount of cholesterol esters that might be present. It seemed to us desirable to confirm these results by a chemical method, and also, if possible, to estimate both the free cholesterol and the esters present at the same time in the blood under various conditions. The usual methods for the chemical estimation of cholesterol are not sufficiently accurate to give reliable information in the case of a fluid such as blood, which contains but a small percentage of cholesterol, and which is only available in relatively small quantities. The discovery of Windaus in 1909 that cholesterol, but not cholesterol esters, readily combines quantitatively with digitonin to form a highly insoluble compound, digitonin cholesteride, according to the following equation- C 55 H 94 O 28 +C 27 H 46 O = C 82 H 140 O 29 , afforded a means of solving the problem.

The Journal of PhysiologyVolume 41, Issue 3-4 p. 246-262 ArticleFree Access The composition of the gases of the blood in chloroform-anæsthesia G. A. Buckmaster, G. A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author G. A. Buckmaster, G. A. BuckmasterSearch for more papers by this authorJ. A. Gardner, J. A. GardnerSearch for more papers by this author First published: 09 November 1910 https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1910.sp001401Citations: 5AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume41, Issue3-4November 9, 1910Pages 246-262 RelatedInformation

While engaged in the study of the gases of the blood during the various stages of anæsthesia by chloroform, we found after absorption of the carbon dioxide and oxygen extracted by the blood pump an amount of residual gas far in excess of any amount that could be regarded as nitrogen remainder plus leak of apparatus. We have found as the result of many experiments, carried out to determine this particular point, that practically all the chloroform present in the blood of anæsthetised animals come off with the gases of the blood when these are extracted at 40° C., so that the excessive residual gas is in large part chloroform vapour, or its decompositon products. The exact method of procedure of analysis of these gases and the effects of the presence of this chloroform on the methods of analysis will form the subject of a forthcoming paper, but we quote the following experiments to show what percentages of chloroform may be present: Cat, weight 3 kilos.; chloroformed for one hour with an air-chloroform mixture 2—3 per cent., 54 c. c. of dark blood withdrawn from carotid artery.