Dehydration impairs endurance and may compromise cognition, yet the impact of pre-exercise hydration status on thermoregulation and cognitive function during continuous exercise is not well defined. Thirty physically active men were randomized to be tested either well-hydrated (HYD; n = 16) or insufficiently hydrated (HYP; n = 14), classified by fasting urine specific gravity (USG; HYD < 1.018; HYP > 1.018) verified over three weeks. On the experimental day, participants cycled at 50% maximal power output (Wmax) under thermoneutral conditions (22°C, 45% RH) until 3% body-mass loss or for 120 min. Core temperature (Tc) was recorded continuously, the sweat rate (SR) was derived from nude body-mass change, and executive function (Stroop Interference) along with visuospatial working memory (Corsi Block-Tapping) were assessed pre- and post-exercise. Participants in the HYD group produced a higher SR (ΔSRmean +0.30 L·h⁻1, 95% CI 0.18-0.43; ΔSRpeak +0.34 L·h⁻1, 95% CI 0.04-0.63) and were more likely to reach 3% mass loss (10/16 vs. 1/14; p = 0.002). Despite greater sudomotor output, early Tc burden (0-90 min) did not differ between groups. Hydration status selectively affected executive control: Stroop naming interference showed a time × status interaction (F(1,27) = 4.57, p = 0.042), driven by slowing in HYP participants (≈+63 ms, p = 0.029), whereas Corsi indices were unchanged. These findings support targeting euhydration before prolonged exercise (e.g., morning USG <1.018), as inadequate baseline hydration may impair inhibitory control even when early Tc responses are comparable. Accordingly, for training or competition requiring rapid decision-making and attentional control, pre-exercise hydration strategies (planned fluid intake and/or USG-based monitoring) may be warranted to mitigate decrements in executive function.

Hydration status modulates both exercise performance capacity and exercise tolerance. This study aimed to examine within-trial relationships among core temperature (Tc), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and thirst during moderate continuous cycling, and to test whether baseline hydration status would moderate these associations. Thirty trained men (34.7 ± 6.1 years; VO2max 48.8 ± 5.8 ml·kg⁻1·min⁻1) completed up to 120 min of cycling at 50% Wmax under thermoneutral conditions. Participants were randomized to an experimental group receiving structured hydration counseling (EXP, n = 16) or a control group following habitual fluid intake (CON, n = 14). Hydration status was verified via urine specific gravity; Tc (CORE heat-flux sensor), the heart rate, RPE (0-10), and thirst (0¬-10) were recorded every 15 min. Analyses included repeated-measures tests, Spearman correlations, and ANCOVA adjusting for baselines and VO2max. Tc rose from rest and tended to plateau by ~60-75 min, whereas RPE and thirst increased throughout. Hydration status predicted higher RPE (partial η2 = 0.41, p < 0.001) with Tc not independently significant (p = 0.81); VO2max was not a significant predictor, although the effect estimate suggested an inverse association with RPE (p = 0.058). For thirst, hydration status remained significant (partial η2 = 0.27-0.50, p ≤ 0.005). Comparing the two groups, the CON group showed greater increases in RPE (ΔRPE mean +0.23 ± 0.05, p < 0.001; ΔRPE peak +0.53 ± 0.10, p < 0.001) and thirst (ΔThirst mean +0.23±0.04, p < 0.001). EXP participants more often completed the 120-min trial (75.0% vs. 28.6%; χ2 = 10.57, p = 0.014). Perceptual coupling was strong (ΔRPE-ΔThirst r_s≈0.84), with ΔRPE inversely related to VO2max and ΔTc modestly. Starting exercise euhydrated reduces perceived effort and thirst during prolonged, thermoneutral cycling, while Tc per se adds little explanatory power for RPE after adjustment. Simple field markers (thirst, heart rate) can flag emerging strain, particularly in less fit individuals.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES:Low-carbohydrate (LCD) and ketogenic diets (KD) are increasingly adopted by athletes due to their ability to enhance fat oxidation and induce metabolic adaptations. While their effects on aerobic power and capacity have been widely investigated, their influence on anaerobic performance remains unclear. Given the strong dependence of high-intensity exercise on glycolytic metabolism and muscle glycogen availability, carbohydrate restriction may have significant implications for short-duration maximal efforts and repeated high-intensity exercise. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of LCD and KD on anaerobic performance outcomes in trained athletes. METHODS:A comprehensive search of five electronic databases (PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials) identified 13 unique studies (yielding 15 study-level entries across three anaerobic performance domains) meeting comprehensive inclusion criteria. Individual study sample sizes ranged from n = 5 to n = 65 participants, reflecting substantial inter-study variability that should be considered when interpreting pooled estimates. Outcomes included peak and mean power output, repeated sprint performance, blood lactate responses, and markers of substrate utilization. Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, and meta-analyses were performed using random-effects models where appropriate. RESULTS:Overall, the effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets on anaerobic performance were domain-specific. Some studies reported maintained or slightly improved peak power during single maximal efforts, while others showed no effect. Impairments were more consistently observed in repeated high-intensity exercise. Repeated sprint performance was impaired in several studies, likely reflecting reduced muscle glycogen availability and limited glycolytic ATP production. Carbohydrate restriction consistently increased fat oxidation and was associated with lower blood lactate concentrations during high-intensity exercise. Random-effects meta-analyses yielded domain-specific pooled effect sizes: maintained-to-slightly-improved anaerobic power output (Cohen's d = +0.29; 95% CI: -0.08 to +0.66), modestly impaired repeated sprint ability (d = -0.33; 95% CI: -0.80 to +0.14), and a large, consistent reduction in blood lactate concentration (d = -0.89; 95% CI: -1.20 to -0.58). Given substantial between-study heterogeneity in intervention durations (2 days to 12 weeks), dietary composition, athlete populations, and outcome measures (1RM, Wingate, CMJ within the power domain; varied protocols within the RSA and lactate domains), these pooled estimates should be interpreted as exploratory rather than confirmatory. CONCLUSIONS:LCD and KD appear to have domain-specific effects on anaerobic performance in trained athletes. Although single, short-duration efforts may be preserved in some contexts, repeated, high-intensity performance appears to be more susceptible to impairment. These findings highlight the importance of aligning dietary strategies with the metabolic demands of training and competition.

Background/Objectives: Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has been explored for its potential to improve general performance in combat sports. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effects of PAPE protocols on physical performance, focusing on differences across disciplines, competitive levels, and testing methods. Methods: A PRISMA-guided search (2010–2023) identified 19 studies examining PAPE protocols in combat sports athletes. The inclusion criteria required human trials using defined PAPE protocols, with outcomes of general performance indicators such as countermovement jumps (CMJs). A meta-analysis was conducted on data from 866 athletes using random effects modeling. Results: The PAPE protocols yielded a pooled effect size of 0.136 (95% CI, 0.008–0.263) across 866 athletes. Taekwondo athletes exhibited the most pronounced improvements in CMJ performance, particularly when using protocols that combined repeated vertical jumps with heavy-resistance cluster sets, and with dynamic, sport-specific movements such as the bandal chagui protocol achieving an effect size of 1.19 (p < 0.001). Conversely, Muay Thai athletes experienced performance declines when the protocols incorporated highly specific techniques, such as roundhouse kicks (ES = −1.36, p = 0.009). Analysis by competitive level revealed pooled effect sizes of 0.14 (95% CI, −0.01 to 0.29) for amateur athletes and 0.13 (95% CI, −0.11 to 0.38) for elite athletes, with no statistically significant differences observed between these groups. Conclusions: PAPE’s effectiveness depends on tailoring protocols to the competitive level and discipline. Short rest intervals support plyometric protocols for amateurs, while heavy-resistance exercises enhance elite performers. Further research is needed to standardize PAPE protocols and explore discipline-specific adaptations.

Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia (NOR), (2) normobaric hypoxia (HYP; FiO2 = 14.7%), and (3) hypoxia with IPC (IPC-HYP). Each session included three 30 s cycling Wingate tests separated by four minutes of passive recovery. Blood samples were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, and 15 min post-exercise to assess lactate, pH, bicarbonate (HCO3−), and creatine kinase (CK) activity. Results: Peak power output was highest under NOR during Wingate II and III. IPC-HYP attenuated the decline in peak power compared to that under HYP (e.g., Wingate II: 15.56 vs. 12.52 W/kg). IPC-HYP induced greater lactate accumulation (peak: 15.45 mmol/L, p < 0.01), more pronounced acidosis (pH: 7.18 post-exercise), and lower bicarbonate (9.9 mmol/L, p < 0.01). CK activity, measured immediately and then 1 h and 24 h post-exercise, was highest under IPC-HYP at 24 h (568.5 U/L). Conclusions: IPC-HYP mitigates the decline in peak anaerobic power observed under hypoxia, despite eliciting greater metabolic and muscular stress. These findings suggest that IPC may enhance physiological adaptation to hypoxic training, potentially improving anaerobic performance.

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is a promising strategy to enhance athletic performance and recovery by improving local muscle oxygen saturation. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different IPC protocols on muscle oxygenation in physically active healthy men. Thirty-four subjects were randomized into three groups and underwent four occlusion cycles of duration of three (IPC-3), five (IPC-5) or seven (IPC-7) min in only one limb. Near-infrared spectroscopy was used to assess oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin levels, calculating total hemoglobin and oxygen saturation percentage (TSI%). Results showed significant improvements in muscle oxygenation following IPC, with variations in minimum, peak, and mean values across protocols. IPC-5 demonstrated the most consistent enhancements in oxygen saturation levels, with statistically significant differences observed in TSI% values during occlusion and reperfusion phases compared to IPC-3 (p < 0.05) and IPC-7 (p < 0.05), without supercompensation of TSI% during reperfusion phases compared to baseline. Specifically, IPC-5 induced the greatest increase in oxygenation in the contralateral limb compared to IPC-3 and IPC-7. These findings suggest that IPC, particularly the five-min protocol, effectively enhances local muscle oxygenation in non-occluded limbs, which may contribute to improved athletic performance and recovery, mainly under conditions where the exercise or testing does not directly involve cuffed limbs.

Nutrition periodization in football training is an important determinant of adaptation to cyclic training loads. Personalizing an athlete’s diet is crucial to ensure optimal performance and body composition, depending on the phase of training. The purpose of this review is to answer the question of how the body composition of football players changes over the training macrocycle and how dietary recommendations should be tailored to specific training periods. The review of scientific evidence was conducted based on the available literature, typing in phrases related to training and nutrition periodization using the PubMed and Google Scholar database methodology tools. A literature search resulted in the selection of 346 sources directly related to the topic of the study, and then those with the highest scientific value were selected. There is a need to adjust energy and nutrient intake according to the different training phases in a football player’s preparation cycle. During the preparatory phase, it is recommended to increase protein and energy intake to support anabolic processes and muscle mass development. During the competitive period, due to the intensity of matches and training, the importance of carbohydrates for glycogen replenishment and recovery is emphasized. The transition phase requires the regulation of caloric intake to prevent adverse changes in body composition. Hydration has been identified as a key element in each phase of training. Cooperation between coaches, nutritionists, and players is essential to optimize sports performance and rapid recovery, and the authors recommend continuous adaptation and nutritional optimization as an integral part of football training.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a single bench press (BP) vs. leg press (LP) resistance training sessions on testosterone, cortisol, C-reactive protein (CRP) interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) concentrations, and creatine kinase (CK) activity in strength-trained males. Eleven strength-trained males participated in a cross-over randomized trial, undergoing two experimental sessions each consisting of five sets of the BP or the LP exercise to volitional failure with a load corresponding to 50% of one-repetition maximum. Blood samples were taken at baseline (BA), immediately post (POST), and 1 h after the cessation of exercise (POST-1). A significant increase in IL-6 concentration from BA to POST-1 was observed during the LP condition (p = 0.004; effect size [ES] = 0.64). Additionally, a significant main effect of time was found for increasing testosterone concentrations from BA to POST exercise (p = 0.014; ES = 0.25). A significantly lower cortisol concentration at POST-1 compared to POST (p = 0.001; ES = 1.02) was noted in the BP condition. Furthermore, a significantly lower cortisol concentration was found at POST-1 in the BP compared to the LP condition (p = 0.022; ES = 1.3). A significant increase in CK activity was reported from BA to POST (p = 0.024; ES = 0.69) and POST-1 (p = 0.045; ES = 0.55) during the LP condition, and from BA to POST-1 (p = 0.014; ES = 0.96) during the BP condition. No significant differences were found in the CRP (p = 0.659) and TNF-α concentrations (p = 0.487). These results suggest that the amount of muscle mass engaged during the resistance exercise may influence the changes in IL-6 and cortisol concentrations. Larger muscle groups, as engaged in the LP, more likely lead to elevated concentrations of IL-6 myokine.

Heritability studies on sport-related traits accepted that endurance, speed, power, and strength abilities include an active genetic predisposition to elite soccer participation. This study evaluates the influence of selected genetic variants on performance in speed, power, and strength laboratory tests on a group of elite soccer players, including their playing position. A ninety-nine male elite soccer players were compared to controls (n = 107) and tested for quadriceps and hamstrings isokinetic strength at speed 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s, jump performance, and genotypes of ACTN3 (R577X, rs1815739), ACE (I/D, rs1799752), NOS3 (Glu298Asp, rs1799983), AMPD1 (34C/T, rs17602729), UCP2 (Ala55Val, rs660339), BDKRB2 (+9/-9, rs5810761) and IL1RN (VNTR 86-bp). The ACTN3 XX homozygotes in defenders had lower quadriceps and hamstring isokinetic strength in all tested speeds than ACTN3 RX and RR genotypes (p < 0.05). The ACTN3 RR homozygotes in defenders had higher quadriceps strength in all tested velocities than the RX heterozygotes (p < 0.05). We also found other associations between playing-position in soccer and increased strength of lower limbs for AMPD1 CC and NOS3 Glu/Glu genotypes, and IL1RN*2 allele carriers. Total genetic score regression explained 26% of the variance in jump performance and isokinetic strength. The ACTN3 R allele, NOS3 Glu/Glu genotypes, and IL1RN*2 allele pre-disposed the attackers and defenders playing position in elite soccer, where those positions have higher strength and power measures than midfielders. Midfielders have lower strength and power conditions than other playing positions without relation to strength and power genes.

The aim of this study was the assessment of sodium bicarbonate supplementation (NaHCO3-) on anaerobic and cognitive performance, assuming ergogenic effect of HCO3 by improving buffering capacity and greater lactate efflux, which may have indirect effect on circulating neurotrophin level (e.g BDNF, IGF-1) and memory. Sixteen well-trained judo athletes completed a randomized trial of either a NaHCO3- (EG) (5000 mg x 2/day/90 min before training)or placebo for 21 days (CG). Before and after treatment, athletes completed double Wingate test (Wt) protocol following which they performed perceived Working Memory test (pWM). Results suggested significant increase in Upper Limb Total Work (with p = 0.011), Mean Power (with p = 0.001), post exercise LA concentration (from 15.51 mmol/L to 18.10 mmol/L with p = 0.01) and HCO3rest concentrations (from 27.37 mmol/l to 28.91 mmol/l with p = 0.001), when compared to baseline values in EG. The analysis showed statistically significant increase in values for IGF-1 (with p = 0.001) and decrease for cortisol and BDNF (with p = 0.001) in EG and CG, when pre and post exercise values were compared. We also revealed statistically significant decrease in values for display time after ingestion of HCO3 between pre and post exercise (with p = 0.002) In conclusion, the lack of a substantial relationship between exerkines (IGF-1, BDNF) and memory in the present study might suggest that exercise induced lactate levels is dominant mechanism improving working memory in well-train athletes.

In combat sports, anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity determine sport performance and the dominant metabolic pathways. The decline in performance during exercise that is attributed to the cumulative effects of fatigue, including excessive accumulation of metabolites, depletion of energy substrates, and water and electrolyte disturbances, seems to be of greatest significance. In our experiment, we evaluated the effectiveness of three weeks of bicarbonate-rich water ingestion on anaerobic performance in a state of hydration and dehydration in elite judo athletes. Eight male, elite judo athletes participated in two single-blind, repeated-measures trials. They were assigned to two hydration protocols, ingesting low mineralized table water and bicarbonate-rich water. Anaerobic performance was evaluated by two 30 s Wingate tests for lower and upper limbs, respectively, under conditions of hydration as well as exercise-induced dehydration. Resting, post-ingestion, and post-exercise concentrations of bicarbonate (HCO3), urine osmolality (U-OSM), urine specific gravity (U-GRAV), and lactate (La) were measured. The current investigation assessed two related factors that impair anaerobic performance-hypohydration and buffering capacity. High-bicarbonate water ingestion improved buffering capacity, and we demonstrated the potential role of this mechanism and its phenomenon in masking the adverse effects of dehydration in the context of repeated high-intensity anaerobic exercise (HIAE).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between physical effort and DNA methylation in the promoter region of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1). The research group included 100 athletes (mean age = 22.88, SD = 6.35), whereas the control group were 239 healthy male volunteers matched for age (mean age = 21.69, SD = 3.39). Both, the control and the research group, included individuals with Caucasian origin from the same region of Poland. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes using a DNA isolation kit (A&A Biotechnology, Gdynia, Poland). Bisulfite modification of 250 ng DNA was performed using the EZ DNA Methylation Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, CA, USA), according to manufacturer's instructions. The methylation-specific PCR assay was carried out in a Mastercycler epgradient S (Eppendorf, Germany). We observed that the level of general methylation of the CpG island was similar for both groups. Further exploration of individual CpG sites allowed to notice that there were significant differences in methylation status in specific positions. Nonetheless, there was no rule that would indicate either higher or lower methylation of individual sites, four of them were methylated at a higher level (positions 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29 and 30), while one showed an inverse trend (position 3). More precise analysis with the usage of Bonferroni correction for multiple tests indicated that differences in CpG site methylation were mainly increased in several positions and decreased in position 3.

Aim: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of 16 weeks of a low dose of magnesium creatine chelate supplementation on repeated sprint ability test (RAST) results in elite soccer players. Materials: Twenty well-trained soccer players participated in the study. The players were divided randomly into two groups: the supplemented group (SG = 10) and placebo group (PG = 10). Out of the 20 subjects selected for the study, 16 (SG = 8, PG = 8) completed the entire experiment. The SG ingested a single dose of 5500 mg of magnesium creatine chelate (MgCr-C), in 4 capsules per day, which was 0.07 g/kg/d. The PG received an identical 4 capsules containing corn starch. Before and after the study, the RAST was performed. In the RAST, total time (TT), first and sixth 35 m sprint length (s), average power (AP) and max power (MP) were measured. Additionally, before and after the test, lactate LA (mmol/L) and acid–base equilibrium pH (-log(H+)), bicarbonates HCO3− (mmol/L) were evaluated. Also, in serum at rest, creatinine (mg/dL) concentration was measured. Results: After the study, significantly better results in TT, AP and MP were observed in the SG. No significant changes in the RAST results were observed in the PG. After the study, significant changes in the first 35 m sprint, as well as the sixth 35 m sprint results were registered in the SG, while insignificant changes occurred in the PG. A significantly higher creatinine concentration was observed. Also, a higher post-RAST concentration of LA, HCO3− and lower values of pH were observed in April, May and June compared with baseline values. Conclusions: The long timeframe, i.e., 16 weeks, of the low dose of magnesium creatine chelate supplementation improved the RAST results in the SG. Despite the long period of MgCr-C supplementation, in the end of the study, the creatinine level in the SG reached higher but still reference values.

Genetic polymorphisms within physiologically relevant KIF6 and APOE genes were examined in the context of athletic performance. KIF6 and ApoE are involved in cardiovascular health, modulation of lipid level and neurotransmission amongst others. The aim of this study was to examine whether three polymorphisms, KIF6 rs20455T > C, APOE rs429358T > C and APOE rs7412 C > T, were associated with athletic status of an athlete defined as performance type (endurance or power). Genotyping was performed using real-time PCR on buccal genomic DNA from 204 Polish athletes including 104 endurance and 100 power athletes, and 161 sedentary individuals. APOE rs429358 genotype frequencies differed significantly between power athletes and sedentary individuals (p = 0.046). KIF6 rs20455 and APOE rs7412 were found to be epistatically associated with the power athletic status (p = 0.032). KIF6 rs20455, APOE rs429358 and APOE rs7412 were associated with athletic status of Polish athletes. In the future, these polymorphisms could contribute to predictive models aimed at assessment of an individual's athletic status.

Abstract Personality traits, especially in sport are modulatory factors of athletes’ behavior – his/ her conscientiousness, the will to achieve an aim, perseverance and motivation of activity. Not only are biological predispositions related to anatomical or biochemical traits of success, but they are also largely determined by personality traits that result from genetic factors. In our research we joined tests of athlete’s personality in correlation with genotypes of the dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene polymorphism. The selection of this polymorphism was based on previous reports connecting the influence of dopamine with motivation and numerous arguments supporting its correlation with human behavior. We observed significant differences among polymorphisms DAT 9/9, 9/10, 10/10 in terms of proportion of particular genotypes between athletes and the control group. We also found significant differences in the NEO FFI sten scale for conscientiousness. We noticed that anxiety was related with genotypic variants of DAT1, specifically the 9/10 VNTR variant, which conditioned lower levels of anxiety in the group of tested athletes. By contrast, the lower sten value of agreeability was statistically significant for the group of athletes that were carriers of the 10/10 VNTR genotype. Heterozygous 9/10 VNTR among athletes showed lower levels of anxiety in comparison with the control group, whereas agreeability determined using the NEO FFI scale represented a lower value among athletes that had the 10/10 polymorphism. We may thus conclude that the presence of polymorphic variants of the dopamine transporter gene corresponds to athletes’ personality traits.

Objectives The present study verified the effect of moderate-to-high-intensity aerobic exercise on the endocrine response profile and adipose tissue in young healthy men with different phenotype characteristics. Design Eighteen men were divided into three experimental groups with defined body components and specific physical fitness: Endurance phenotype – EP (n = 6; low body mass; low fat content; aerobic endurance trained), Athletic phenotype – AP (n = 6; high body mass; low fat content, resistance trained), Obesity phenotype – OP (n = 6; high body mass; high fat content, untrained). Methods The participants performed an progressive exercise protocol on a treadmill (30% VO2max, 50% VO2max, 70% VO2max), separated by 45 s of passive rest for blood collection. Results Plasma glucose oxidation increased in relation to exercise intensity, but to a greater extent in the AP group. The free fatty acids’ plasma level decreased with a rise in exercise intensity, but with different kinetics in particular phenotypes. Plasma growth hormone increased after the cessation of exercise and was significantly higher in all groups 45 min into recovery compared to resting values. Plasma insulin decreased during exercise in all groups, but in the OP, the decrease was blunted. Conclusions The results indicate that the rate of lipolysis, hormonal and metabolic response to aerobic exercise depends on the individuals’ phenotype. Thus, exercise type, duration and intensity have to be strictly individualized in relation to phenotype in order to reach optimal metabolic benefits.

Background: Although the scientific literature regarding sports genomics has grown during the last decade, some genes, such as peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs), have not been fully described in terms of their role in achieving extraordinary sports performance. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review was to determine which elite sports performance constraints are positively influenced by PPARs and their coactivators. Methods: The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines were used, with a combination of PPAR and sports keywords. Results: In total, 27 studies that referred to PPARs in elite athletes were included, where the Ala allele in PPARG rs1801282 was associated with strength and power elite athlete status in comparison to subelite athlete status. The C allele in PPARA rs4253778 was associated with soccer, and the G allele PPARA rs4253778 was associated with endurance elite athlete status. Other elite status endurance alleles were the Gly allele in PPARGC1A rs8192678 and the C allele PPARD rs2016520. Conclusions: PPARs can be used for estimating the potential to achieve elite status in human physical performance in strength and power, team, and aerobic sports disciplines. Carrying specific PPAR alleles can provide a partial benefit to achieving elite sports status, but does not preclude achieving elite status if they are absent.

Background: Hydration is one of the most significant issues for combat sports as athletes often use water restriction for quick weight loss before competition. There is significant evidence to indicate that the hypohydration status impairs anaerobic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate if hypohydration, to reach a weight category, affects anaerobic performance. Material and methods: Six well trained combat sport athletes, classified in the middleweight division, took part in the experiment. The hydration status and anaerobic performance parameters were evaluated at four points in time (t(1) - four weeks before fight, t(2) - two weeks before fight, t(3) - one day before fight, t(4) - the fight day). The hydration status was determined using urine osmolality (U-OSM) and urine specific gravity (U-SG) techniques. Anaerobic performance was evaluated by 30s Wingate tests for upper limbs. Results: The current investigation demonstrated a significant impairment of anaerobic performance parameters, such as peak power - P-p (W), mean power - P-m (W) and total work performed - W-t (J), as a consequence of dehydration in the weight cutting process. Conclusions: The overall results indicate that hypohydration in combat sports athletes is not fully compensated in the 24 h from weigh-in to competition.

Cytokines, such as interleukins, are crucial in regulating critical cell signaling pathways as well as being major contributors to inflammatory response and are upregulated during ligament and tendon injuries. The genes encoding key interleukins, such as IL1B and IL6 as well as interleukin receptor IL6R, were chosen as candidate genes for association with soft tissue injuries. The aim of the case-control study was to verify the hypothesis that sequence variants rs1143627, rs16944, rs1800795, rs2228145 in the IL1B, IL6 and IL6R genes are associated with ACL rupture susceptibility in a Polish population. Among four analyzed SNPs, the rs1800795 IL6 gene polymorphism was found to be the only one significantly associated with ACL rupture (p = 0.010, p = 0.022, p = 0.004 for codominant, recessive and overdominant models, respectively; odds ratio = 1.74, 95% CI 1.08-2.81, sex adjusted p = 0.032 for recessive model). With reference to the other analyzed polymorphisms, we failed to show significant differences in the genotype and allele frequencies for IL6R rs2228145as well as IL1B rs16944 and rs1143627 (analyzed alone or in haplotype combination) between the ACL rupture group and the healthy control group among Polish participants. Due to the nature of case-control studies, the results of this study need to be confirmed in independent studies with larger sample sizes.

The ability to generate high levels of power is one of the key factors determining success in many sport disciplines. Although there are studies confirming ergogenic effects of caffeine (CAF) on different physical and mental abilities, much controversy remains about its influence on power. The main goal of this study was to assess the effects of caffeine supplementation on time under tension (TUT) and the number of performed repetitions (REP). The second objective was to determine the effects of CAF supplementation on power (P) and movement velocity (V) during the bench press movement. Additionally the authors evaluated whether CAF has a significant effect on velocity of the bar in the eccentric (ECC) phase (VEMEAN) of the bench press movement. The study included 20 men (20–31 yrs., 87.3 ± 7.7 kg) with at least 2 years of experience in resistance training. The study participants were divided randomly into two groups: the supplemented group ingested caffeine before exercise (GCAF), while the control group was given a placebo (GCON). The exercise protocol consisted of performing the bench press movement with a load equal to 70%1RM with maximal possible velocity (X/0/X/0). The experimental sets were performed to momentary muscular failure. The repeated measures ANOVA between the GCAF and GCON groups revealed statistically significant differences in 2 variables. Post-hoc tests demonstrated statistically significant differences in TUT when comparing the group supplemented with caffeine (13.689 s GCAF) to the one ingesting a placebo (15.332 s GCON) at p = 0.002. Significant differences were also observed in mean velocity during the eccentric phase of movement (0.690 m/s in the GCAF to 0.609 in GCON with p = 0.002). There were no significant differences in generated power and velocity in the CON phase of the movement between the GCAF and GCON. The main finding of the study is that CAF ingestion increases movement velocity of the bar in the eccentric phase of the movement, what results in shortening of the time under tension (TUT) needed for performing a specific number of repetitions, without decreasing power and velocity in the CON phase of the movement.