During Cassini's Grand Finale in 2017, the number densities of electron and light ions in Saturn's low-latitude ionosphere were measured in situ. This region is strongly influenced by the influx of ring material from Saturn's D ring.The electron data from the onboard Langmuir probe (LP) and light ion densities from the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) correlate very well even on short timescales after correcting the INMS timestamps, whereas prior the correlation was limited to broader scales. We analyze the electron-to-ion ratios for the proximal orbits and identify three distinct regions in Saturn's ionosphere:1) For altitudes above ∼2500 km and latitudes between -20° and 20°, the electron-to-light-ion ratios for the four analysed orbits are generally 8000 km) the ratios increase rapidly. This may indicate the presence of heavier ions, such as O+ and water group species, spiralling in from the C ring.

We combine RPWS/LP and INMS data from Cassini's Grand Finale orbits into Saturn's lower ionosphere to calculate the effective recombination coefficient α300 at a reference electron temperature of 300 K. Assuming photochemical equilibrium at altitudes below 2500 km and using an established method to determine the electron production rate, we derive upper limits for α300 of ∼ 2.5∗10-7 cm3 s-1, which suggest that Saturn's ionospheric positive ions are dominated by species with low recombination rate coefficients.An ionosphere dominated by water group ions or complex hydrocarbons, as previously suggested, is incompatible with this result, as these species have recombination rate coefficients > 5∗10-7 cm3 s-1 at an electron temperature of 300 K. The results do not give constraints on the nature of the negative ions.

<p>Helium ions, He<sup>+</sup>, react only slowly with molecular hydrogen. A consequence of this is that He<sup>+</sup> ions produced by, for example, photoionization of He in H<sub>2</sub>-dominated ionospheres, such as those of Jupiter and Saturn, can have principal loss mechanisms other than through reactions with molecular hydrogen even if the other reactants prevail in rather small volume mixing ratios. The Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) onboard the Cassini mission operated in open-source ion mode during a few of the passages through Saturn’s upper atmosphere throughout the proximal orbits in 2017. Due to the high spacecraft velocity, exceeding 30 km/s, the retrieval of ion number densities was limited to light ion species with masses (for singly charged species) of < 8 Da. Direct measurements of mixing ratios of neutral species heavier than helium (such as H<sub>2</sub>O, CH<sub>4</sub>, NH<sub>3</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>,<sub> </sub>CO<sub>2 </sub>and CO) in Saturn's equatorial ionosphere are sparse and their retrieval was in part complicated by adsorption effects.</p> <p>We seek to make an independent estimate of the mixing ratios of volatiles other than H<sub>2</sub> and He by making use of a simple model focusing on the production and loss balance of helium ions. We first consider two models to estimate the local production rate of He<sup>+</sup> from the measured density profiles of He and H<sub>2</sub> and show that these give estimates in reasonable agreement with each other. Then we show that the calculated concentration of He<sup>+</sup> exceeds the observed values by up to two orders of magnitude if we only account for the loss of He<sup>+</sup> ions through reactions with molecular hydrogen. We take this as a strong indicator that the principal loss mechanism of He<sup>+</sup> in Saturn’s ionosphere is through reactions with other species than H<sub>2</sub>, whose overall mixing ratio is denoted f<sub>X</sub>.  Based on the assumption of photochemical equilibrium at altitudes below 2500 km, we can then proceed by estimating f<sub>X</sub> to closest approach for Cassini's proximal orbits 288 and 292. Our derived mixing ratios for the inbound part of orbits 288 and 292 are in reasonable agreement with the direct measurements from INMS around closest approach and subceed them at higher altitudes. Comparisons with results from other studies potentially suggest an increased water influx around equatorial latitudes.</p>

A surprisingly strong influx of organic‐rich material into Saturn's upper atmosphere from its rings was observed during the proximal obits of the Grand Finale of the Cassini mission. Measurements by the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) gave insights into the composition of the material, but it remains to be resolved what fraction of the inferred heavy volatiles should be attributed as originating from the fragmentation of dust particles in the instrument versus natural ablation of grains in the atmosphere. In the present study, we utilize measured light ion and neutral densities to further constrain the abundances of heavy volatiles in Saturn's ionosphere through a steady‐state model focusing on helium ion chemistry. We first show that the principal loss mechanism of He + in Saturn's equatorial ionosphere is through reactions with species other than H 2 . Based on the assumption of photochemical equilibrium at altitudes below 2,500 km, we then proceed by estimating the mixing ratio of heavier volatiles down to the closest approaches for Cassini's proximal orbits 288 and 292. Our derived mixing ratios for the inbound part of both orbits fall below those reported from direct measurements by the INMS, with values of ∼2 × 10 −4 at closest approaches and order‐of‐magnitude variations in either direction over the orbits. This aligns with previous suggestions that a large fraction of the neutrals measured by the INMS stems from the fragmentation of infalling dust particles that do not significantly ablate in the considered part of Saturn's atmosphere and are thus unavailable for reactions.

We investigate the role of secondary electron and ion emission from impact of gas molecules on the Cassini Langmuir Probe (RPWS-LP, or LP) measurements in the ionosphere of Saturn. We add a model of the emission currents, based on laboratory measurements and data from comet 1P/Halley, to the equations used to derive plasma parameters from LP bias voltage sweeps. Reanalysing several hundred sweeps from the Cassini Grand Finale orbits, we find reasonable explanations for three open conundrums from previous LP studies of the Saturn ionosphere. We find an explanation for the observed positive charging of the Cassini spacecraft, the possibly overestimated ionospheric electron temperatures, and the excess ion current reported. For the sweeps analysed in detail, we do not find (indirect or direct) evidence of dust having a significant charge-carrying role in Saturn's ionosphere. We also produce an estimate of H2O number density from the last six revolutions of Cassini through Saturn's ionosphere in higher detail than reported by the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS). Our analysis reveals an ionosphere that is highly structured in latitude across all six final revolutions, with mixing ratios varying with two orders of magnitude in latitude and one order of magnitude between revolutions and altitude. The result is generally consistent with an empirical photochemistry model balancing the production of H+ ions with the H+ loss through charge transfer with e.g., H2O, CH4 and CO2, for which water vapour appears as the likeliest dominant source of the signal in terms of yield and concentration.

For orbits 288 and 292 of Cassini’s Grand Finale, clear dips (sharp and narrow decreases) are visible in the H 2 + densities measured by the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS). In 2017, the southern hemisphere of Saturn was shadowed by its rings and the substructures within. Tracing a path of the solar photons through the ring plane to Cassini’s position, we can identify regions in the ionosphere that were shadowed by the individual ringlets and plateaus (with increased optical depths) of Saturn’s C ring. The calculated shadowed altitudes along Cassini’s trajectory line up well with the dips in the H 2 + data when adjusting the latter based on a detected evolving shift in the INMS timestamps since 2013, illustrating the potential for verification of instrument timings. We can further estimate the mean optical depths of the ringlets/plateaus by comparing the dips to inbound H 2 + densities. Our results agree well with values derived from stellar occultation measurements. No clear dips are visible for orbits 283 and 287, whose periapsides were at higher altitudes. This can be attributed to the much longer chemical lifetime of H 2 + at these higher altitudes, which in turn can be further used to estimate a lower limit for the flow speed along Cassini’s trajectory. The resulting estimate of ∼0.3 km s −1 at an altitude of ∼3400 km is in line with prior suggestions. Finally, the ringlet and plateau shadows are not associated with obvious dips in the electron density, which is expected due to their comparatively long chemical (recombination) lifetime.

We present a semianalytical photochemical model of Saturn’s near-equatorial ionosphere and adapt it to two regions (∼2200 and ∼1700 km above the 1 bar level) probed during the inbound portion of Cassini’s orbit 292 (2017 September 9). The model uses as input the measured concentrations of molecular hydrogen, hydrogen ion species, and free electrons, as well as the measured electron temperature. The output includes upper limits, or constraints, on the mixing ratios of two families of molecules, on ion concentrations, and on the attachment rates of electrons and ions onto dust grains. The model suggests mixing ratios of the two molecular families that, particularly near ∼1700 km, differ notably from what independent measurements by the Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer suggest. Possibly connected to this, the model suggests an electron-depleted plasma with a level of electron depletion of around 50%. This is in qualitative agreement with interpretations of Radio Plasma Wave Science/Langmuir Probe measurements, but an additional conundrum arises in the fact that a coherent photochemical equilibrium scenario then relies on a dust component with typical grain radii smaller than 3 Å.

<p>Helium ions, He<sup>+</sup>, react only slowly with molecular hydrogen. A consequence of this is that He<sup>+</sup> ions produced by, for example, photoionization of He in H<sub>2</sub>-dominated ionospheres, such as those of Jupiter and Saturn, can have principal loss mechanisms other than through reactions with molecular hydrogen even if the other reactants prevail in rather small volume mixing ratios. The Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) onboard the Cassini mission operated in open-source ion mode during a few of the passages through Saturn’s upper atmosphere throughout the proximal orbits in 2017. Due to the high spacecraft velocity, exceeding 30 km/s, the retrieval of ion number densities was limited to light ion species with masses (for singly charged species) of < 8 Da. The retrieval of number densities of volatiles like H<sub>2</sub>O, CH<sub>4</sub>, NH<sub>3</sub>, N<sub>2</sub> and CO were in part complicated by adsorption effects.</p> <p>We seek to make an independent estimate of the mixing ratios of volatiles other than H<sub>2</sub> and He by making use of a simple model focusing on the production and loss balance of helium ions. We first consider two models to estimate the local production rate of He<sup>+</sup> from the measured density profiles of He and H<sub>2</sub> and show that these give estimates in reasonable agreement with each other. Then we show that the calculated concentration of He<sup>+</sup> exceeds the observed values by up to two orders of magnitude if we only account for the loss of He<sup>+</sup> ions through reactions with molecular hydrogen. We take this as a strong indicator that the principal loss mechanism of He<sup>+</sup> in Saturn’s ionosphere is through reactions with other species than H<sub>2</sub>. We proceed with a brief survey of chemical reaction databases highlighting that it seems reasonable to consider an effective rate constant of k<sub>1 </sub>≈ (1.0 ± 0.5)*10<sup>-9</sup> cm<sup>3</sup> s<sup>-1</sup> for reactions involving the neutralization of He<sup>+</sup> in reactions with H<sub>2</sub>O, CH<sub>4</sub>, NH<sub>3</sub>, N<sub>2</sub> and CO. This allows us to estimate the mixing ratio of these molecules across an altitude profile. Our results are compatible with the average values reported by Miller et al. (2020) and show indications of enhanced mixing ratios towards lower altitudes and/or near equatorial latitudes.</p>

This study analyses the observations of a new type of small-scale aurora-like feature, which is further referred to as fragmented aurora-like emission(s) (FAEs). An all-sky camera captured these FAEs on three separate occasions in 2015 and 2017 at the Kjell Henriksen Observatory near the arctic town of Longyearbyen, Svalbard, Norway. A total of 305 FAE candidates were identified. They seem to appear in two categories – randomly occurring individual FAEs and wave-like structures with regular spacing between FAEs alongside auroral arcs. FAEs show horizontal sizes typically below 20 km, a lack of field-aligned emission extent, and short lifetimes of less than a minute. Emissions were observed at the 557.7 nm line of atomic oxygen and at 673.0 nm (N2; first positive band system) but not at the 427.8 nm emission of N2+ or the 777.4 nm line of atomic oxygen. This suggests an upper limit to the energy that can be produced by the generating mechanism. Their lack of field-aligned extent indicates a different generation mechanism than for aurorae, which are caused by particle precipitation. Instead, these FAEs could be the result of excitation by thermal ionospheric electrons. FAE observations are seemingly accompanied by elevated electron temperatures between 110–120 km and increased ion temperatures at F-region altitudes. One possible explanation for this is Farley–Buneman instabilities of strong local currents. In the present study, we provide an overview of the observations and discuss their characteristics and potential generation mechanisms.

Fragmented aurora-like emissions (FAEs) are small (few kilometres) optical structures which have been observed close to the poleward boundary of the aurora from the high-latitude location of Svalbard (magnetic latitude 75.3 ∘N). The FAEs are only visible in certain emissions, and their shape has no magnetic-field-aligned component, suggesting that they are not caused by energetic particle precipitation and are, therefore, not aurora in the normal sense of the word. The FAEs sometimes form wave-like structures parallel to an auroral arc, with regular spacing between each FAE. They drift at a constant speed and exhibit internal dynamics moving at a faster speed than the envelope structure. The formation mechanism of FAEs is currently unknown. We present an analysis of high-resolution optical observations of FAEs made during two separate events. Based on their appearance and dynamics, we make the assumption that the FAEs are a signature of a dispersive wave in the lower E-region ionosphere, co-located with enhanced electron and ion temperatures detected by incoherent scatter radar. Their drift speed (group speed) is found to be 580–700 m s−1, and the speed of their internal dynamics (phase speed) is found to be 2200–2500 m s−1, both for an assumed altitude of 100 km. The speeds are similar for both events which are observed during different auroral conditions. We consider two possible waves which could produce the FAEs, i.e. electrostatic ion cyclotron waves (EIC) and Farley–Buneman waves, and find that the observations could be consistent with either wave under certain assumptions. In the case of EIC waves, the FAEs must be located at an altitude above about 140 km, and our measured speeds scaled accordingly. In the case of Farley–Buneman waves a very strong electric field of about 365 mV m−1 is required to produce the observed speeds of the FAEs; such a strong electric field may be a requirement for FAEs to occur.

The present study combines Radio and Plasma Wave Science/Langmuir Probe and Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer data from Cassini’s last four orbits into Saturn’s lower ionosphere to constrain the effective recombination coefficient α 300 from measured number densities and electron temperatures at a reference electron temperature of 300 K. Previous studies have shown an influx of ring material causes a state of electron depletion due to grain charging, which will subsequently affect the ionospheric chemistry. The requirement to take grain charging into account limits the derivation of α 300 to upper limits. Assuming photochemical equilibrium and using an established method to calculate the electron production rate, we derive upper limits for α 300 of ≲ 3 × 10 −7 cm 3 s −1 for altitudes below 2000 km. This suggests that Saturn’s ionospheric positive ions are dominated by species with low recombination rate coefficients like HCO + . An ionosphere dominated by water group ions or complex hydrocarbons, as previously suggested, is incompatible with this result, as these species have recombination rate coefficients > 5 × 10 −7 cm 3 s −1 at an electron temperature of 300 K.

During the Grand Finale of the Cassini mission, the southern hemisphere of Saturn was shadowed by its rings and the substructures within, whose more intense shadows can be mapped to specific ionospheric altitudes. We successfully connect small-scale variations (dips) in the ionospheric H2+ density below 2500 km, measured by the Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS) during orbits 288 and 292, to the shadows of individual ringlets and plateaus in the C Ring. From the H2+ density signatures we estimate lower limits of the associated ringlet or plateau opacities. These will be compared with results obtained from stellar occultations and potential implications/constraints on the ionospheric dynamics will be discussed. The ringlet and plateau shadows are not associated with obvious dips in the electron density.

Abstract. This study analyses the observations of a new type of small-scale aurora-like feature, which is further referred to as Fragmented Aurora-like Emission(s) (FAEs). An all-sky camera captured these FAEs on three separate occasions in 2015 and 2017 at the Kjell-Henriksen Observatory near the arctic town of Longyearyben, Svalbard. A total of 305 FAE candidates were identified with varying degrees of certainty. They seem to appear in two categories – randomly occurring individual FAEs and wave-like structures with regular spacing between FAEs alongside auroral arcs. FAEs show horizontal sizes typically below 20 km, a lack of field-aligned emission extent and short lifetimes of less than a minute. Emissions were observed at the 557.7 nm line of atomic oxygen and at 673.0 nm (N2, first positive band system), but not at the 427.8 nm emission of N2+ or the 777.4 nm line of atomic oxygen. This suggests a limit to the energy of the generating mechanism. Their lack of field-aligned extent indicates a different generation mechanism than for aurora, which is caused by particle precipitation. Instead, these FAEs could be the result of excitation by thermal ionospheric electrons. FAE observations are seemingly accompanied by elevated electron temperatures between 110–120 km and increased ion temperatures at F-region altitudes. One possible explanation for this are Farley-Buneman instabilities of strong local currents. We provide an overview of the observations and discuss them as well as potential generation mechanisms in the present study.

The present study combines RPWS/LP and INMS data from Cassini's orbit 292, which reached an altitude of 1685 km at the lowest point, to constrain the effective recombination coefficient α300 from measured densities and electron temperatures at a reference electron temperature of 300 K. Assuming photochemical equilibrium at these low altitudes and linking established methods to calculate the electron production rate and the dissociative recombination rate results in a formula to calculate an upper limit for α300. This is then compared against rate constants of individual recombination reactions as measured in the laboratory. We derive upper limits for α300 of ∼ 2.5∗10-7cm3 s-1, which suggest that Saturn's ionospheric positive ions are dominated by species with low recombination rate coefficients. An ionosphere dominated by water group ions or complex hydrocarbons, as previously suggested, is incompatible with this result, as these species have recombination rate constants > 5∗10-7 cm3 s-1 at an electron temperature of 300 K. The results do not give constraints on the nature of the negative ions.