AimsThe goal of this study is to assess the differences in peak and medium velocity, peak and medium acceleration of eyeball movements after the administration of methadone.Materials and methodsTwenty-eight opioid addicts were examined. Patients admitted oculomotor impaired were excluded.In this study, we made use of the Saccadometer Advanced (Advanced Clinical Instrumentation, Cambridge, UK), allowing the measurement of eye position with the time resolution of 1 msec (1000 Hz). The eye movement measurement is automated and synchronised with stimuli presentation. Before and after the administration of methadone two saccadic tests were carried out: Prosaccades Test (PT) and Antisaccades Test (AT).ResultsThe average of peak and medium velocity and the average of peak and medium acceleration of eyeball movements in the test AT were lower than in the PT test. After administration of a single dose of methadone the peak and medium velocity, peak and medium acceleration decreased in both tests (PT and AT). After administration of methadone prolonged the duration of saccades, and prolonged the duration of rising and falling slope of saccades.ConclusionIt was found that methadone (μ-opioid receptor agonist) is associated with change of velocity and acceleration of eyeball movements.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

IntroductionIt is necessary to search for and to carry out effective treatments for chemical dependency – including behavioral addictions. One of the methods used in various disorders is a biofeedback HRV (BF-HRV). The aim of the study is to examine the impact of BF-HRV on people addicted behaviorally to gambling and chemically dependent patients on opioids.Material and methodsTwenty-four opioid addicts were examined. We used emWave (HeartMath) with a heart rhythm monitor to learn stress reduction and emotional management skills. For a detailed analysis of the HRV data was used Kubios 2.0 software (Biosignal Analysis and Medical Imaging Group).ResultsThe average value of the three components of HRV, i.e. low (LF), medium (MF) and high (HF) frequencies of spectral energy FFT recorded during six consecutive sessions of BF-HRV were the following: 1st session LF 63%; MF: 17%; HF: 19%. Changing parameters in the next sessions: 2nd session LF −9.27%, MF: +0.50%, HF: +6.19%; 3rd session LF −11.11%, MF: +1.00%, HF: −10.07%; 4th session LF −14.27%, MF: −4.17%, HF: +18.77%; 5th session LF −15.02%, MF: −2.04%, HF: +17.07%; 5th session LF −15.02%, MF: −2.04%, HF: +17.07%; 6th session LF −20.86%, MF: −4.04%, HF: +24.90.ConclusionsAfter the BF-HRV training decrease low and medium frequencies (LF-MF) and increase high frequency (HF). Recent studies suggest that LF-HRV is an index of cardiac sympathetic control and the LF/HF ratio is an index of sympathovagal balance.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Aims The aim of this study was to assess the differences in saccadic latency (a measure of time delay experienced in eye movements) between alcohol-dependent and healthy controls. Materials and methods Participants Ninety-nine alcohol dependent patients were examined. Thirty-eight healthy controls were matched to the affected cohort according to demographic characteristics. Assessment In this study we used the Saccadometer Advanced System (Advanced Clinical Instrumentation, Cambridge, UK). The Saccadometer System allows quick and easy collection of saccadic responses within the shortest physiologically possible time (100 saccades in 5 min). The brevity of the testing routine minimizes any potential influence on the results due to fatigue in the test subjects. The eye movement measurements are automated and synchronised with stimuli presentation. This study analyzed saccadic latency and standard deviation of mean latency. Results There was higher saccadic latency and standard deviation of mean latency in alcohol-dependent individuals (224.43±56.24 msec) when compared to healthy controls (187.84±25.65 msec). A marked asymmetry of standard deviation of mean latency between right-sided and left-sided saccades was observed in the affected cohort. There was an increased standard deviation of right-sided saccades mean latency (69.96 msec) in alcohol-dependent individuals when compared to healthy controls (30.93 msec) and also an increased standard deviation of left-sided saccades mean latency (59.33 msec) when compared to healthy controls (33.09 msec). Conclusion It was found that alcohol dependence is associated with impaired (longer time delay) saccadic reaction.

Introduction The saccadic movements are associated with activation of the certain brain regions. These cerebral areas are responsible also for controlling executive functions. In the current experiment we used an objective test (i.e. saccadometry) to study the effect of a single therapeutic dose of methadone on the integrity of cortico-subcortical brain functioning in individuals with diagnosis of heroin addiction. Assessment the ocular movements (saccades) in opioid addicted subjects in the dependence of the time of substitution treatment. Eighty-eight patients from the substitution program were examined (mean age 39±7.7 years, mean daily dose of methadone: 71.9±(33.4) mg) The study included 55 subjects treated with methadone from one year to three years and subjects treated with methadone from three to seven years. The examination was conducted twice: before and about 1,5 hours after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone. Performed Latency Task (LT) with Saccadometr diagnostic system. The statistical analysis shows that the mean duration after the administration of methadone in the subjects treated with methadone from one year to three years was statistically significantly increased (p=0,0001) but in the subjects treated with methadone from three to seven years was no statistically significant difference (p=0,0524). No statistically significant differences were found in other parameters of the test. The results indicate a change in the dynamics of saccade after methadone administration in subjects treated with methadone from one year to three years compared to the subjects treated with methadone from three to seven years.

The aim of this study was to assess the differences in peak velocity of eye movements between alcohol-dependent and healthy controls. Participants Ninety-nine alcohol dependent patients were examined. Patients with oculomotor impairment were excluded. Thirty-eight healthy controls were matched to the affected cohort according to demographic characteristics. Assessment In this study we used the Saccadometer Advanced System (Advanced Clinical Instrumentation, Cambridge, UK). The eye movement measurements are automated and synchronized with stimuli presentation. The person conducting the experiment needs to ensure that the sensor is placed correctly and to give instructions to the test subject. The Saccadometer System does all other measurements and recordings of test data automatically. The study analyzed the peak velocity of eye movements of amplitude of 10 degrees and the deviations in peak velocity. There was a statistically significant higher mean peak velocity of saccadic eye movements in alcohol-dependent individuals (440.82±86.33deg/s) when compared to healthy controls (411.39±86.33deg/s). Greater asymmetry of mean peak velocity between right-sided and left-sided saccades was observed in the affected cohort when compared to the healthy test subjects. There was a higher mean right-sided peak velocity (462.73±118.54deg/s) in the alcohol dependent subjects when compared to healthy controls (414.68±73.79deg/s) and also a higher mean of left-sided peak velocity (418.82±79.83deg/s) when compared to healthy controls (405.13±49.50deg/s). It was found that alcohol dependence is associated with differences and significant increased asymmetry of peak velocity of eye movements.

Introduction Administration of psychoactive drugs increases dopaminergic receptor stimulation, improves mood and stimulates motor activity. Structural and functional changes can be observed in particular structures of the central nervous system (CNS). Aims/Objectives This study aims to assess the saccadic refixation parameters in opioid addicted subjects treated with methadone compared to control group. Methods Eighty-six patients from the substitution program were examined. The study included 36 subject of the control group. The trial was conducted twice: before and about 1.5 hours after the administration of therapeutic dose of methadone. Performed Latency Test(LT) with Saccadometr diagnostic system. Results The statistical analysis showed that the mean duration before and after the administration of methadone was a statistically significant increases (p=0,0001) in the subjects from substitution program compared of the control group but after administration of methadone the value greatly increased in experimental group (before 52 ms , after 56 ms ). It was observed that the mean amplitude after the administration of methadone increased statistically significantly in experimental group compared of the control group (p=0,02). Mean peak velocity of latency after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone was statistically significant decreased in experimental group compared of the control group (p=0,0004). Conclusion The results indicate a change in the dynamics of saccade after methadone administration. The observed changes in values for eye movements may be due to the inhibitory effect of methadone on CNS.

IntroductionEye movements are closely related to cognitive and emotional functions. Information of saccadic dynamics during certain tasks may indicate disorders of mental functions that can help to explain the neurobiology of sensory-motor systems and be useful in neuropsychiatric diagnosis.Aims/objectivesThis study aims to assess the impact of a therapeutic dose of methadone on eye movements (saccades) in opioid addicted subjects with HIV(+) and HIV(-).MethodsSixty patients (29 patients with HIV(-) and 31 of HIV(+)) from the substitution program were examined. The examination was conducted twice: before and 1,5 hours after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone. Performed Latency Test (LT) with saccadometr diagnostic system.ResultsMean duration of latency measured by LT Test after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone increases significantly in HIV(-) subjects but the mean peak velocity decrease in the study group. Mean peak velocity latency in HIV(+) subjects is not statistically significant. Mean duration and amplitude of latency after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone is a statistically significant in opioid addicted subjects with HIV(+). It was found that the mean peak velocity before the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone was statistically significantly different in HIV(-) subjects as compared to HIV(+) ones.ConclusionThe increase of saccadic refixation parameters values in opioid-addicted subjects after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone was observed.

IntroductionThere are cognitive and motor impairments in individuals with Alzheimer's disease, which are related to their ability to learn the new procedures, skills and activities.Objectives and aimsThe aim of the study is to compare motor procedural learning in individuals with mild and moderate Alzheimer's disease with motor procedural learning in older subjects without dementia.Methods32 individuals with mild and moderate Alzheimer's dementia (AD) (F.00.0, F.00.1, F.00.2) (MMSE> 15) (25 women, mean age 76.8 ± 6.41 and 7 men, mean age 79.1 ± 5.21), and 32 individuals without symptoms of dementia (healthy controls- HC) matched for sex, age and education level were examined. Motor procedural learning was assessed by the Pursuit Rotor Task (PRT). The time [ms] of keeping cursor within the moving round object-dot during every 4 trials was measured (after training session).ResultsThe average time [ms] of keeping cursor within object in particular trials is as follows:-AD: 857, 1035, 1060, 1098-HC: 1014, 1068, 1316, 1681Statistically significant difference was found in parameters from fourth trial between examined groups (U Manna-Whitneya: Z=- 1,962; p=0,05).ConclusionsIt was found that mild and moderate AD patients are able to procedural learn motor task although they achieve worse scores than older persons without dementia.

Background. Peripheral cytokines are related to cognitive impairment in delirium and dementia. During alcohol detoxification, elevation of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines is reported. However, the relationship between peripheral cytokines and cognitive function in alcohol dependence has not been examined. We characterised the serum cytokine profile during alcohol detoxification, hypothesising that cytokines changing during detoxification would relate to cognitive performance. Methods. We recruited 54 patients undergoing in-patient detoxification (M = 33, aged 47 ± 13), took blood for serum cytokine analysis early (day 1-3), mid (day 4-6) and late (day 7 -10) in detoxification. At the last time point, verbal memory (Weschler Memory Scale), and Trail Making Tests A and B (Halstead-Reitan battery) were administered. Cytokines were measured using a Luminex 25-plex system. Ten cytokines undetectable in >10% samples were excluded from further analysis. We performed repeated-measures analyses of variance to examine cytokine changes during detoxification, and correlations controlling for age, previous alcohol intake, previous detoxifications and gamma glutamyl transferase, to examine the relationship between cytokines and cognition. Results. Few cytokines changed during detoxification: IL-6 (F = 7.210; p = 0.0038), MCP-1 (F = 10.25; p = 0.0002) and IL-8 (F = 11.46; p = 0.0002) decreased while IL-12 increased (F = 12.32; p = 0.0003). MCP-1 (-0.508, p = 0.004) correlated inversely with time taken to complete Trails A (-0.508, p = 0.004), and directly with performance on both immediate (0.371; p = 0.044), and delayed verbal memory (0.412; p = 0.024). Conclusions. Our initial analysis suggests an association between MCP-1 and cognitive function. Further exploration is required to understand its nature, and whether it can be exploited to protect cognition in alcohol dependence.

Research on cognitive functions in opioids addicted subjects treated with methadone indicate that cognitive functions are in various degree disturbed. This study aims to assess the impact of a therapeutic dose of methadone on psychomotor velocity in HIV (+) and HIV (-) subjects treated with substitution therapy. 73 patients were examined, 32 HIV (-) and 41 HIV (+) (mean age 39.5 ± 7.7) treated with methadone for an average of 54 months. The examination was conducted twice: before and about 1.5 hours after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone (mean dose: 83 ± (34) mg). A test sheet was placed on the graphic tablet. In both parts of the test execution time was measured. It was found that the average time of TMT A completion before methadone administration in HIV (-) individuals is 40.2 ± (12)s and in HIV (+) ones - 50.6 ± (25.7)s, after methadone administration in HIV (-) individuals: 36.4 ± (10.2)s, in HIV (+) - 42.4 ± (18,8,51)s. The value of T test in HIV (-) and HIV (+) subjects before the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone amounts to t = 2.1083, p = 0.0385, and after the application it amounts to t = 1.6157, p = 0.1106. Psychomotor velocity measured by TMT A Test before the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone increases significantly in HIV(-) subjects in comparison to HIV (+) ones. Psychomotor velocity after the administration of a therapeutic dose of methadone is not statistically significant in HIV (-) subjects as compared to HIV (+) ones.

The aim of study is to assess the graphomotor and psychomotor skills and eye-hand coordination in patients with schizophrenia 30 patients were examined. The most accurate mapping of geometric shapes printed on the sheet, by drawing on dominant hand contour was the task for patients. The original test implemented on tablet was used. Designed software allowed an analysis of the motion's parameters: force levels, the time of the task, speed and acceleration of the plot, the amplitude and frequency of hand tremors. Results were compared with healthy group. Slight tremors reduced mean amplitude of the primary component (1 Hz), while slightly increasing the mean amplitude for the components 2, 3 and 8 in the task of drawing the figures for the spectrum of trembling deviation was observed. In the signature task observed a significant reduction in the mean amplitude of tremors in the middle of the component analysis (5 Hz to 9 Hz). Significant changes in the range: 2 Hz to 5 Hz and 7 Hz to 16 Hz in the task of drawing the figures for the spectrum force levels ware observed. Comparison of the dynamics of motion in patients with schizophrenia to healthy subjects in the control group indicate a significant impairment of graphomotor and psychomotor efficiency. Particularly, the most differentiate these two groups refers to parameters quantitatively measured the level of tremors the dominant hand tremors, mostly in the fundamental frequency.

Introduction In the course of schizophrenia, motor disturbances are observed both clinically and subclinically. Aims The aim of the study is to evaluate graphomotor functions in the patients with schizophrenia treated with atypical and typical neuroleptics, and to compare the parameter values with those of the healthy subjects. Methods Participants: 30 patients with schizophrenia treated with typical (10 patients) and atypical (20 patients) neuroleptics. The group included 10 women and 20 men (mean age 38.5 ± 10.46 years). The control group consisted of 20 healthy volunteers (8 women and 12 men, mean age 36.75 ± 20.79 years). Features of graphomotor functions were examined by the drawing test and Reitan's Trial Making Test A and B (TMT A and B). Results Data analysis indicates that there is no statistically significant difference between the parameter values found in the subjects from atypical neuroleptics treatment group compared to those treated with typical neuroleptics. Conclusions It was found that psychomotor functions performance of the patients treated with atypical neuroleptics measured by the drawing test and TMT not differ compared to the performance of the patients treated with typical neuroleptics when compared to the patients treated with typical neuroleptics. Comparing cognitive functions of the subjects with schizophrenia and those from the experimental group, as measured by the drawing test and TMT, the patients with schizophrenia from the experimental group had worse psychomotor function values in comparison to the subjects from the control group.

Objective The aim of the study is to assess graphomotor and psychomotor skills of people treated with substitution therapy in opiate addiction. Methods 36 patients were examined twice, immediately before and about 1.5h after oral administration of therapeutic dose of methadone. The original test implemented on a tablet was used. A task in the first part was to map, as accurately as possible, geometric shapes printed on the sheet of paper by drawing on contour, and in the second part to sign up on the sheet. The patients used dominant hand. The software used allows to make analysis of the motion's parameters: time, force levels, speed and acceleration of the plot, amplitude and frequency of hand tremors. Results The amplitude of tremors in the spectrum of variations in 13 of the 16 components analyzed in the drawing task and all the components in the spectrum of the instantaneous velocity tremors were reduced. In the signature task a significant reduction in the average amplitude of tremors for medium and higher spectral components (from the 4 th up) and a reduction in the amplitude of tremors in the spectrum of instantaneous velocity for most precisely analyzed components was observed. Conclusion A single dose of methadone in opioid-addicted individuals reduces dominant hand tremors, particularly in the 1 st spectrum component frequency for the drawing test. This indicates improvement in graphomotor and psychomotor function.

Opiate dependence is a significant risk factor for HIV infection. An assessment of differences between opiate addicts with and without HIV infection. 171 opiate dependent patients treated with methadone were asked about: length of dependence, age of onset of opiate dependence, dosage of methadone, effects of methadone on interviewed subjects and HIV infection. In our sample 72 (42%) subjects had HIV infection (HIV+) and 99 (58%) subjects had not HIV infection (HIV-). Comparison of 99 HIV (-) patients with 72 HIV (+) patients revealed that in HIV (+) group there were statistically significantly more women (40 vs. 25%), patients were older (39 vs. 36 years old), had longer length of dependence (22 vs. 16 years), had longer time of maintained methadone treatment (63 vs. 26 months). It was also found that HIV (+) patients had earlier age of onset of opiate dependence than the patients in HIV (-) group (18 vs. 19 years old, p = 0,058). Our research may suggest that HIV infection had correlation with the course of methadone substitution treatment of opiate dependence.

Introduction There are many types of psychomotor disturbances in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. The kind and depth of these dysfunctions relate to the stage of AD. Objectives and aims The aim of the study is to compare graphomotor efficiency in individuals with mild and intermediate Alzheimer's disease with those parameters in older subjects without dementia. Methods 31 individuals with mild and intermediate Alzheimer's dementia (F.00.0, F.00.1, F.00.2) (MMSE > 13) (26 women, mean age 76.8 ± 6.41 and 5 men, mean age 79.1 ± 5.21), treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and 30 individuals without symptoms of dementia (matched for age) were examined. Graphomotor efficiency was assessed by the original drawing test performed in a magnetic field with the use of MedTablet software. The average length of drawing [cm], the average time of drawing [s] and the average speed of drawing [cm / s] were measured. Results Statistically significant differences were found in all tested variables: the average length of drawing [cm] (α = 0.05, p = 0.000009), average time of drawing [s] (p = 0, 000205) and the average speed of drawing [cm / s] (p = 0.000015) between the compared groups. Conclusion It was found that the level of graphomotor efficiency in individuals with mild and intermediate Alzheimer's disease is statistically significantly lower in comparison to older people without dementia.

Methadone treatment may cause prolongation of QT/QTc. This study aims to assess the impact of a single dose of methadone on the value of the QT in the patients from the substitution program. Participants: 37 people (10women and 27men) treated with methadone in the substitution program. The average age of respondents was 35 ± 9 years old (min.21, max.59), the mean time of addiction 16 ± 8 years, mean dose of methadone was 80 ± 18 ml. The control group: 17 patients (6men and 11women), healthy, non-addicted to drugs. The average age of group was 29 ± 6 years. QT and QTc (ECG) were measured automatically. The study was performed before and about 60minutes after the administration of a single dose of methadone. There is a statistically significant difference between QTc values before and after the administration of a single dose of methadon (p = 0.006). Comparison of the average increase in QTc values in each group, showed that the patients taking methadone up to 70 ml (15.21 ms) had the highest increase, and those receiving a minimum of 90 ml (4 ms) had the lowest increase. It was found that the QTc value is statistically significantly greater in patients after the intake of methadone (p = 0.048). The average QTc value obtained in these groups differed by 16.13 ms. The analysis of the occurrence of statistically significant differences of QTc values before and after the administration of a single dose of methadone shows that methadone causes QT prolongation in the ECG in opioids addicted patients from the substitution program.

There are abnormalities in eye movements in individuals with Alzheimer's disease, which are related to oculomotor frontal-subcortical circuit dysfunctions. The aim of the study is to compare the parameters of saccadic eye movements in individuals with Alzheimer's disease with those in older adults without dementia. 31 individuals with mild and intermediate Alzheimer's dementia (MMSE > 13) (26 women, mean age 76.8 ± 6.41 and 5 men, mean age 79.1 ± 5.21) and 30 individuals without symptoms of dementia (matched for age) were examined. The parameters of saccadic eye movements were measured with the use of Saccadometer Advanced. Two experiments were performed: Latency Trials (LAT) and Reflexive with Gap (RXG). Saccadic latency [ms], the reaction time [ms] and the number of executed saccades were measured. Results: LAT: Statistically significant differences in the number of saccades (α = 0.05, p = 0.000024) and in average latency [ms] (α = 0.05, p = 0.039) between the individuals with AD and the healthy ones were found. RXG: Statistically significant differences were found in all the variables tested: number of executed saccades (α = 0.05, p = 0.0265), average latency [ms] (α = 0.05, p = 0.043) and average duration [ms] (α = 0.05, p = 0.000035) between persons from the control group and those from the experimental group. It was found that the level of oculomotor efficiency in mild and intermediate Alzheimer's disease is significantly lower in relation to older people without dementia.

In alcohol dependence are distinguished two types of course of illness in relation to age of onset of dependence. An assessment of differences between opiate addicts with early and late age of onset of dependence. 242 opiate dependent patients, treated with methadone, were asked about: length of dependence, dosage of methadone, HIV infection, effects of methadone on interviewed subjects and the age of onset of opiate dependence. In our sample 140 (58%) subjects developed opiate dependence below the age of 19, and 102 (42%) subjects developed dependence above the age of 18. Comparison of the patients with the onset of opiate dependence above the age of 18 with the patients with the onset of opiate dependence blow the age of 19 revealed that in the group with younger age of onset of opiate dependence there were statistically significant more women (40 vs. 23%), the patients were younger (35 vs. 38 years old), had longer time of dependence (19 vs. 16 years), had shorter time of well-being after taking a dose of methadone (12 vs. 15 hours). Our research may suggest, in accordance with findings in alcohol dependence that subjects with early age of onset of opiate dependence differ in the course of dependence with the patients with late age of onset of opiate dependence.