Coastal socio-economic and ecological processes are at the forefront of current archeological research world-wide because of their significance for understanding people’s relationships with aquatic habitats. The South African west coast is such a case and particularly for the Late-Holocene. Among the many known coastal sites are more than a dozen massive shell middens. Known locally as ‘megamiddens’, they reflect an intense use of coastal resources by a growing human population during the period ~3560–2100 cal BP. Recent studies of the southern-most megamiddens in Paternoster (Vredenburg Peninsula) expanded on initial observations based on megamiddens along the central west coast, but the relationship between these two focal areas remains to be understood. We thus explore this connection through the contemporary archeological record from Dwarskersbos, located along the ~52 km long prograded sandy coastline separating them. While movement of people along this long sandy beach happened over millennia, the results show more connections between Dwarskersbos and Paternoster sites, including: (i) visits between ~3560 and 2345 cal BP, (ii) a high occupational intensity and use of large stone hearths, (iii) a subsistence based on rocky shore mollusks, small terrestrial prey and occasionally also on marine mammals, (iv) the probable presence of social networks along the Vredenburg Peninsula and Dwarskersbos coastline different to those on the central west coast which resulted in differential access to lithic raw materials. These observations add complex and dynamic aspects to an evolving picture for a unique period of intensive use of aquatic resources.

Large shell middens or shell mounds are present throughout the world's coastlines. They are frequent expressions of higher population densities, more sedentary lifestyles, social and technological innovation and/or complexity, and overexploitation of large and small prey. Large Holocene shell middens on the west coast of South Africa are known as megamiddens and date to the third millennium BP. Earlier studies have explained their appearance as resulting from a resource intensification process. Megamiddens situated further south in Paternoster village were known to contain comparatively larger quantities of vertebrate fauna and artifacts; however, they remained much less studied until now. Recent findings on Paternoster North megamidden, are reported here and compared to other local sites and to central west coast megamiddens. Previous observations on fauna and artifacts from Paternoster megamiddens are confirmed in this study, with their chronology appearing to be somewhat earlier than that of the central west coast megamiddens. Climatic, geographical, geological, and environmental differences in both terrestrial and coastal settings seem to explain the contrasting records. Further studies on Paternoster megamiddens will improve our understanding of a millennium which has the most intense use of coastal resources in southern African prehistory.

We compare motifs engraved on ostrich and rhea eggshell fragments from southern Africa and southern South America respectively. These elements were part of water flasks used, transported and cached by hunter-gatherers. We define trends in the motifs engraved on eggshells, inquire about their temporal and spatial distribution, their diversity and their information content in the context of the social interactions and boundaries developed among mobile peoples. A typology of basic motifs occurring on each side of the Atlantic was built to perform a three-step analysis. The first evaluates motif composition through three periods that we name 'middle', 'initial late' and 'final late' Holocene, the second examines image circulation within each period and the third assesses the information content of the engravings. Even though the ostrich and rhea eggshells' visual repertoires are similar, motif variability and motif spatial distribution between the periods analyzed present differences related to the particular social processes that took place in each region. Ostrich eggshells' higher information content could imply that interaction networks in southern Africa were more extensive than in southern South America. However, sample bias could also be affecting the results obtained.

Redevelopment of a property in Elands Bay village revealed the buried remains of previously unknown shell middens. Although subsequent archaeological excavations recovered only a small sample, the ca 3000 cal BP assemblage adds meaningfully to the local cultural sequence. The shallow depth of the shell-supported lenses suggests single occupation events. A modest but noticeable amount of terrestrial and marine vertebrate remains of small prey was recovered, along with a few cultural artefacts. Much of the excavated volumes comprise marine shell, among which large-sized black mussels (Choromytilus meridionalis) are dominant. A limited number of limpets and a few Cape rock lobster (Jasus lalandii) mandibles also form part of the marine invertebrate assemblage. The choice of settlement close to the shoreline and a focus on black mussels reflect some of the hallmarks of sites dated to the beginning of the megamidden period. Beyond the interpretation of its contents, this rescued material increases the evidence of occupation behind the northern shore of Elands Bay and indicates that similar sites may lie buried beneath both the village and the adjacent dunes.

We have analyzed the 16S rDNA sequence and the phylogenetic position of an uncultivated spirochete from the hindgut contents of the Australian termite Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt. The 16S rRNA genes of bacteria from the hindgut contents of Mastotermes darwiniensis were amplified by polymerase chain reaction. The amplification products were cloned and sequenced. The sequences were compared to known homologous primary structures. Two of the clones (MDS1 and MDS3) had an insert of 1498 nucleotides showing typical signatures of spirochete 16S rRNA sequences. The sequences of the two clones were most similar to the 16S rRNA sequence of Spirochaeta stenostrepta (89.8%) and Treponema sp. strain H1 (90.7%). Phylogenetical analysis positioned the hindgut spirochete sequence with that of the free-living anaerobic Spirochaeta stenostrepta and Treponema sp. strain H1 as its nearest relatives within the cluster of the spirochetes. We conclude that the analyzed SSU rDNA sequences originate from a spirochete related to the genus Treponema. It is possibly one of the uncultivated unique spirochetes symbiotic in termite hindguts.

We report on excavations at Deurspring, north of Lamberts Bay, South Africa. Earlier work there provided the first evidence of mid-Holocene occupation of the west coast of South Africa. This was unexpected, as previous research argued for an occupational hiatus in the local cultural sequence due to adverse climatic conditions and limited drinking water. Deurspring also provided further insights into the so-called megamidden period (3200-1900 cal BP), a time when people relied heavily on marine resources and accumulated very large shell middens through intense harvesting of predominantly black mussels. Our new work in the area shows that local fauna was procured during rather brief mid-Holocene visits, while groups moved over large areas from where they sourced exotic stone raw materials. Deurspring sites are much smaller than megamiddens, but their occupation intensifies after 3200 cal BP, and quantities of lithic artefacts indicate a domestic signature. Black mussels were harvested in greater numbers over time but their quantities were limited by the northward biogeographic trend of increasing abundance of intertidal limpets at the expense of black mussels, as observed today. This factor likely limited the intense exploitation of black mussels around Deurspring and probably explains why large-sized megamiddens never formed there.

This paper offers further insights into, and evidence for, the mid- and late Holocene occupations at Dunefield Midden 1 (DFM1), Elands Bay, South Africa, as represented by its abraded and unabraded stone artefact assemblages, respectively. The unabraded assemblage is compared to similar ones from Namaqualand. This shows that 1) the DFM1 assemblage is typical of this assemblage type in the almost exclusive use of clear quartz and the predominance of backed bladelets; and 2) despite heavy wind abrasion of a similar but older assemblage in Namaqualand, the quartz artefacts there were unaffected. Therefore, the abraded quartz artefacts from DFM1 do not belong with the more recent quartz assemblage, and the abrasion must have occurred through water rather than wind action. Additional evidence for the mid-Holocene occupation at DFM1 is provided by a radiocarbon dated Donax scraper whose age is similar to an existing date on an ostrich eggshell bead. The evidence is used to propose a Holocene depositional and sea-level history for the area. Further excavation at the site should clarify any remaining uncertainties.

This paper reviews the precolonial coastal archaeological record from Table Bay to Yzerfontein. The observations include amateur and professional historical reports, academic publications and a large body of grey literature generated by cultural resources management (CRM) practitioners. Primary archaeological information is relatively sparse due to the extensive historical development of the coastline, with most data generated by recent CRM work. The radiocarbon record established from burials and shell middens extends back through 6 000 years; beyond that, isolated occurrences of Middle and Early Stone Age materials exist, notably including the Middle Stone Age shell midden, Ysterfontein 1. Further archaeological sites are likely to occur in the review area but sites in better context are more likely to be found in the north, where development pressure has been less intense. Given the continuing development around Table Bay, CRM work will continue to drive the generation of archaeological data in the area.

VR048 is a dense Later Stone Age open-air site along the Varsche River, in the arid Knersvlakte of southern Namaqualand, South Africa. The site contains tens of thousands of flaked stone artefacts, numerous ostrich eggshell fragments, some beads, and abundant pottery. Analysis reveals the site to be a palimpsest and, given the rarity of LSA sites in the region, its location must have been unusually attractive. Based on the evidence of stone tools, ostrich eggshell beads, pottery, a tortoise burial, and a radiocarbon date, occupation was probably sporadic over the last approximately 4000 years. Occupation before this time seems highly unlikely. Although mixed, the stone artefacts show stronger affinities with Namaqualand than with areas further south. The site was likely used by both hunter-gatherers and herders but material ascribable to each cannot as yet be differentiated with certainty.

The Elands Bay and Lamberts Bay areas have received dedicated attention over the last 40 years. Broad chronological patterns have been established and tested by numerous research projects in the last two decades. Nevertheless, this large corpus of data also reveals that despite much research effort, some periods are better understood than others. For instance, only partial information is available for the Mid-Holocene (8700-4800 cal BP), and astonishingly little is known about the centuries between 1300 and 600 cal BP. Both of these periods were dominated by warm and dry atmospheric conditions, and are known as the Holocene Altithermal and the Medieval Warm Epoch, respectively. But luckily, two of three sites at Soutpansklipheuwel (SPKH) outcrop near Lamberts Bay are now known to have substantial volumes of material dating to the latter and elusive period. This paper reports on recent test excavations at all three sites. The results suggest that outcrops and other high-placed locations were targeted for settlement during this period, probably because of competition resulting directly or indirectly from water shortages and xeric conditions. Abundant supply of fuel from a range of woody shrubs and rainwater accumulating in rock pools made SPKH outcrop especially attractive. Shellfish consumption appears to have been of great importance to groups settling at SPKH, with species diversity largely dictated by the biogeographical distribution of taxa in nearby rocky shores. Exotic lithic raw materials were never dominant, but good effort was made to procure them from distant places, thus influencing mobility. Compared to local sites, backed pieces are unusually common at SPKH and a greater variety of formal tools were used and discarded at this locality. The emerging signs of variability seem to suggest that this hitherto little-known period known as the Medieval Warm Epoch was more eventful than previously suspected.

The extraction and study of organic residues from ceramics has been a subject of interest for the last 50 years in archeology and archeological science. Lipids are among the best-preserved organic substances in archeological contexts and can provide information about the diets of ancient populations as well as past environments. Here, we present a method which demonstrates significantly improved extraction of lipids from archeological pots by replacing liquid organic solvents with supercritical fluids. Optimization of the procedure using response surface methodology (RSM) approach showed that, on our system, optimal conditions for supercritical extraction of lipids from synthetic fired clay ceramics could be achieved using carbon dioxide with 16 vol % of cosolvent EtOH-H2O (95:5 v/v) in 90 min at a flow rate of 2.3 mL/min, for a pressure of 30 MPa and a temperature of 50 °C. For all reference and archeological samples included in this study, lipid yields obtained by supercritical fluid extraction under these optimal conditions were systematically higher than by conventional solvent extraction. This study also highlighted a variability of the ratio of unsaturated versus saturated fatty acids depending on the extraction method. This can have important implications in the identification of the residue(s). The increased extraction efficiency provided by supercritical fluids, as well as their minimally destructive nature, enable new and refined approaches to residue analysis and dating of archeological ceramics.

A set of open-air Later Stone Age sites near the town of Copperton, South Africa, was found to be rich in quartz artefacts that frequently include backed tools and adzes. Comparison with contemporaneous Bushmanland assemblages suggests greater variety in material culture during the past two millennia in the region than hitherto recognised and that categorical distinctions between hunter-gatherer and herder material culture may require revision. We describe the extent of the 'Bushmanland' region from an archaeological perspective and find that 'looking beneath the surface' of local open-air sites in this arid region to maximise the amount of information extracted is critical. Future research into precolonial herding in southern Africa will also benefit from the inter-regional integration of archaeological findings.

Lively debate surrounds the introduction of non-indigenous domestic livestock to southern Africa. Despite disagreements regarding process, the archaeological community agrees, with unusual unanimity, on the broad chronology. Indeed, the certainty with which the timing is known (admittedly within the limits of radiocarbon dating) has been celebrated, because with these underpinning data in hand, issues of process can be explored in a serious and empirically grounded manner. Recently published ancient DNA (aDNA) research in southern Africa now calls into question the reliability of many faunal identifications upon which this debate rests. These data build on earlier ecological data, suggesting that some faunal identifications at sites crucial to the debate may be unreliable. A number of morphologically identified domesticate bones were chosen for aDNA sequencing to explore the relationships among southern Africa’s early domestic stock. Unfortunately, a large proportion yielded DNA sequences indicating a wild origin. This led us to consider the potential scale of the problem and the implications for existing models regarding the introduction of herding to the subcontinent. The issue may originate largely from the optimistic identification of specimens retaining too few key morphological markers. We acknowledge that reconstructions of the past are likely to be biased by discarding potential zooarchaeological data through overly conservative identification. We argue, however, that the potential ramifications of building models on unreliable data are far greater than those of being forced to acknowledge gaps in our data and are calling for further research.

Considerable change occurred in the Late Holocene Later Stone Age of Namaqualand, northwestern South Africa. Focusing on stone artifacts, pottery, and ostrich eggshell beads, the cultural sequence for the area is described. Two additions are identified, complicating the traditional model for the introduction of herding into the country. From the mid-Holocene onward, lithic assemblages are based on milky and/or clear quartz and cryptocrystalline silica and initially contain many backed tools with scrapers more common during the first millennium BC. These are hunter-gatherer assemblages. During the final centuries BC, backed bladelet-rich assemblages based on clear quartz appear, with the earliest examples demonstrating typological continuity with the existing assemblages. About 1,500years ago, expedient assemblages lacking retouch and based on poorer quality quartz appear. The three types co-occur during the last 1,500years, occasionally in combination with one another. This contrasts strongly with other parts of South Africa where just two distinct assemblage types are identified, suggesting that the hunter-gatherer-herder dichotomy is not universally valid. The artifact patterns between about 200 cal BC and cal AD 500 and the introduction of livestock suggest considerable cultural and social change, heralding the onset of a local Neolithic, but the exact mechanisms remain unclear.

This paper explores the concept of the cultural landscape in relation to the precolonial aspects of South Africa's heritage. To this end, it first defines archaeological sites, archaeological occurrences and background scatter because an understanding of these terms informs the establishment: of a precolonial cultural landscape (PCL) typology. Based on the context and surface manifestation of the archaeology, five types of PCL are proposed with examples of each provided. The identification of PCLs is particularly relevant in the cultural resource management context because an understanding of PCLs can assist heritage practitioners in correctly assessing both archaeological (heritage) significance and impact significance as well as suggesting appropriate archaeological mitigation measures. The improved quality of information provided to heritage and other authorities will result in more rigorous comments and decisions and the chances of unexpected archaeological impacts during construction will be reduced.

This report describes an approximately 2000-year-old pre-colonial burial (SAM-AP 6383) recovered from a construction site in Bloubergstrand on the Cape West Coast. A number of decorative items were associated with the burial and this is considered unusual for West Coast burials. Although disturbed prior to recovery, the majority of the skeleton was present and facilitated the identification of the person as a Khoesan male in his early twenties. Based on the the size of the burial shaft, he was interred on his side. Associated archaeological material was minimal and we conclude that the burial was not placed within a shell midden. Stable isotope values calculated from his bone collagen indicate a large proportion of marine protein in the diet. The decorative shell artefacts included two Turbo sarmaticus pendants and 21 small perforated whelks of varying species. Although still requiring microscopic confirmation, the perforations on the latter appear unworn, suggesting that they might have been made close to the time of death or specifically for placing with the burial.

One of the longest-standing debates in African archaeology concerns the introduction of herding to southern Africa and the resulting associated cultural changes. Two short books relating to the top...