The Amazon is the worlds largest tropical rainforest, hosting a myriad of plants, fungi and animals, and encompassing a wide diversity of ecoregions. Bolivia has allocated 17 % of its territory to national protected areas, among which Madidi National Park and Natural Integrated Management Area boasts the largest representation of ecoregions in the country. However, despite its significance, knowledge of Madidis herpetofauna remains limited. This study presents the most comprehensive survey of reptile diversity in and around Madidi, combining an extensive literature review with three years of fieldwork. We computed alpha, beta, gamma, and dark diversity indices to comprehend the composition of reptile species across the ecoregions represented within the protected area. We registered 110 reptile species within the park, with the Sub-Andean Amazon Forest ecoregion displaying the highest diversity. The diversity indices applied indicate the potential for discovering additional species in the area, and as expected for a mountainous area, there is a high turnover of species between ecoregions, each of them exhibiting a distinctive species composition. We recommend continuous monitoring in an area with such high reptile diversity, particularly considering the impacts that climate change will have on these species’ assemblages over time.

We studied Tachymenis peruviana`s thermoregulatory strategy, and microhabitat use and selection in an open enclosure at 3400 m elevation during the wet season. We expected that thermal conditions at a high elevation locality would result in differences in the thermoregulatory efficiency within microhabitats through their use and selection along the day. We obtained preferred temperatures and critical thermal tolerance limits of field-captured individuals. Some individuals were kept in an open enclosure with access to four microhabitat types with retreats where to hide. We measured individuals' field-body temperatures along with substrate and air temperatures, and recorded where the snakes were found according to microhabitat type and if they were inside or outside retreats. Meanwhile, operative temperatures were registered every hour at each offered microhabitat between 08:00 to 18:00 hours. The body and microenvironmental temperatures were highly correlated. Even though the enclosure offered appropriate thermal sources for snakes to reach their preferred temperatures, results indicate that the species met its energy requirements with a low effort in this high elevation enclosure. Almost threequarters of the observations were recorded in retreat sites, showing a lower thermoregulatory efficiency compared to when they were captured aboveground. A comparative evaluation of the thermoregulation of the species in the field within a variety of thermal regimes experienced along its altitudinal and latitudinal range must still be carried out to better understand the species' thermoregulatory strategies across the Andes.

La vulnerabilidad de las serpientes al cambio climático, la pérdida de hábitats naturales y el conflicto con los humanos hacen imperiosa la necesidad de conocer más sobre su diversidad en el territorio boliviano. Además, debido al temor que las personas les tienen a las serpientes, muchas de ellas son eliminadas intencionalmente y muchas otras mueren atropelladas en las carreteras, por lo que estos ejemplares son una fuente importante para el registro de especies. Esta información fue obtenida en los alrededores de la ciudad de San Borja en Beni- Bolivia y se comparó la cantidad y la riqueza de especies registradas con estudios de extrapolación y registros previos. En total se recolectaron e identificaron 82 individuos, de 43 especies, pertenecientes a cinco familias. Por las comparaciones con otros estudios, podemos estar seguros que en esta región hay 54 especies de serpientes confirmadas. Este estudio no sólo aporta al conocimiento de la diversidad de serpientes del suroeste del departamento del Beni, sino que, además, resalta la importancia de las colectas provenientes del conflicto humano-serpiente.

Telmatobius is the most diverse group of anurans in the Andean Altiplano (highlands) Morphologically, these amphibians have a generally conserved morphology but in turn present large intraspecific variation, which has led to a complex taxonomy and systematics. T. marmoratus has the widest distribution of the genus and forms a complex composed of at least two Telmatobius species. Partial systematic studies based on molecular evidence reveal the existence of three lineages with a complex spatial distribution. However, these studies did not include the entire distribution of T. marmoratus. Our study aims to reassess the current systematic scenario including the complete distribution of the complex. For this, we used a multilocus approach based on mitochondrial (16S, Cytb) and nuclear (RAG1-1, BFIB) DNA sequences to build a phylogenetic hypothesis based on Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony. Subsequently, we performed single-locus (ABGD and PTP) and multilocus (STACEY) species delimitation analyses to verify the diversity of nominal species within the complex. The analyses suggest seven non-sibling lineages and 6-10 candidate species within the marmoratus complex. Only one of the two lineages restricted to the central northern plateau correspond to T. marmoratus sensu stricto. South-central marbled water frogs belong to completely new lineages closer to T. gigas and T. culeus, evidencing the polyphyletic condition of the marmoratus complex. The findings of several sympatric lineages in some localities reveal a complex history of ancient water connections in south-central Altiplano.

Liolaemus represents the most diverse group of saurians in South America. The species ofthis genus, inhabit different ecosystems characterized by their endemism, whose taxonomicknowledge increased from 1837 to date, mainly in Argentina and Chile, while in the PlurinationalState of Bolivia (Bolivia) the taxonomic and phylogenetic knowledge of the genus began to haverelevance from 2002 to date, properly guiding the real wealth that the country has. However, inBolivia, studies of population density, diet and reproduction began to be reported in the 1980s,studies of potential distribution began in 2007 and those related to thermal ecology began in2015. There is no doubt that taxonomic studies are strengthening the knowledge of the genusin Bolivia, which allows a precise understanding of the areas of endemism, important for biogeographicanalysis or modeling studies of potential distribution of species, thus prioritizingtheir conservation status. The lack of a comparative and taxonomic review of the specimensdeposited in scientific collections and the lack of information in areas where no prospectingwas carried out throughout the distribution of the genus in Bolivia, prolonged for a long timethe description of species that are waiting to be formally reported to the scientific communityand society, and then face studies in different disciplines. This work presents an update of thegenus Liolaemus richness in Bolivia, emphasizing the main works and advances in the lasteighteen years.

Los anfibios conforman uno de los grupos más diversos y exitosos del planeta, pero no lograron independizarse por completo de los cuerpos de agua y están sujetos a una constante pérdida de agua por evaporación, que depende de factores determinados por el hábitat que ocupan. Gastrotheca marsupiata y Pleurodema cinereum son anfibios anuros que comparten el mismo tipo de hábitat en el Valle de La Paz. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue comparar la pérdida de agua por evaporación entre las 2 especies, tanto en condiciones de laboratorio utilizando individuos vivos, así como en diferentes microhábitats naturales utilizando modelos de agar. Los resultados muestran que los individuos de G. marsupiata pierden más agua que los de P. cinereum , tanto en condiciones de laboratorio como los modelos simulados en los diferentes microhábitats. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la aparente disminución de las poblaciones de G. marsupiata en el Valle de La Paz puede estar influenciada por la pérdida de agua por evaporación, ya que independientemente del microhábitat y la hora del día, G. marsupiata pierde más agua que P. cinereum .

Lizard species have diverse behavioral and physiological responses to thermo-environmental conditions, which allow them to inhabit a broad range of latitudes and elevations. Because the availability of suitable thermal resources is limited and more variable at high-elevation environments than at lower elevations, we expect high-elevation lizards to be constrained in their thermoregulation relative to lizards at lower elevations by the fewer available thermal resources to reach optimal temperatures (colder environment). We studied the thermal biology of an endemic and Critically Endangered lizard, Liolaemus aparicioi, to assess its thermal responses along a 1000 m elevational gradient in La Paz Valley from May to August of 2015 (dry season). We took field body and microhabitat temperatures at capture sites (substrate and air above ground), and body size (snout-vent length and mass) of individuals at Taypichullo (3000 m asl), Gran Jardín de la Revolución Municipal Park (3500 m asl), and Taucachi (4000 m asl) localities. Operative temperatures were taken from calibrated models deployed in different available microhabitats. Preferred temperatures and thermal tolerance limits were determined in laboratory settings for lizards from each locality. Field body, microhabitat, and operative temperatures decreased with increasing elevation and differed between sexes. Lizards at the high elevation locality had the lowest thermoregulatory efficiency as compared with the mid and lower elevation localities. In laboratory measurements, while the preferred temperatures varied between sexes, pooled preferred temperatures and thermal tolerances were similar in all localities. Although thermal resources at high elevation can limit thermoregulatory possibilities in L. aparicioi, behavioral microhabitat use, time allocated to thermoregulation, and physiological adjustments seem to be possible strategies to counteract thermal costs along elevational gradients.

Amphibians are one of the most diverse and successful groups on the planet, but they did not manage to become completely independent of water bodies and are subject to a constant loss of water through evaporation, which depends on factors determined by the habitat occupy. Gastrotheca marsupiata and Pleurodema cinereum are anuran amphibians that share the same habitats in the La Paz Valley. The purpose of this work was to compare the loss of water by evaporation for those species, both under laboratory conditions for living individuals, as well as in different natural microhabitats, using agar models. The results show that G. marsupiata individuals lose more water than those of P. cinereum, both in laboratory conditions and simulated models in different microhabitats. Our results suggest that the apparent decline of the populations of G. marsupiata in the La Paz Valley may be influenced by the loss of water by evaporation, since regardless of the microhabitat and the time of day, G. marsupiata loses more water than P cinereum.

We used radio-telemetry to record how Caiman yacare (Cy) and Melanosuchus niger (Mn) responded to the intrusion of the Maniqui river into Cedral Lagoon in the Bolivian Amazon. Nine M. niger and 3 C. yacare were followed between December 2015 and May 2016. Both species showed a gradual reduction in mean monthly range from December (19.96 ha Mn and 1.74 ha Cy) to May 2016 (0.08 ha Mn and 0.24 ha Cy). Habitat use was fairly constant throughout the months for both species, Melanosuchus niger used mainly open swampy forests and Cyperaceae Marshes, while C. yacare used more islands and flooded grasslands. This study shows that both species of caimans responded to changes in depth and vegetation types, as their habitat as a whole was changed by river intrusion.

Climate change and socio-economic and environmental determinants of health (SDH) are the first acknowledged root-causes of infectious diseases. Controlling for SDH would reduce disease burden and promote adaptation. How can we determine which non-health sectors contribute the most and how to health vulnerability? No interdisciplinary and participative methodologies have yet been devised to address, from a complex systems perspective, the degree of responsibility non-health sectors and climate change have in disease occurrence, as a basis for adaptation. This study aims to identify climate change adaptation options for Dengue fever based on Eco-health and watershed approaches to influence public policies in the Bolivian Chaco Ecosystem. We carried out a transdisciplinary "Methodology for climate change Health Vulnerability Assessment considering Eco-health and Watershed Approaches" (MHVA), in selected areas of Pilcomayo watershed. Results established the level and type of current and future Dengue vulnerability, and the degree of responsibility of health and non-health sectors. Then, adaptation options were participatory prioritised, designing a Climate Change Health Strategic Adaptation Plan, which implementation has already begun. The use of MHVA and current adaptation experience would help in identifying the most vulnerable locations and target adaptation actions.

The South American lizard genus Liolaemus comprises > 260 species, of which > 60 are recognized as members of the Liolaemus montanus group, distributed throughout the Andes in central Peru, Bolivia, Chile and central Argentina. Despite its great morphological diversity and complex taxonomic history, a robust phylogenetic estimate is still lacking for this group. Here, we study the morphological and molecular diversity of the L. montanus group and present the most complete quantitative phylogenetic hypothesis for the group to date. Our phylogeny includes 103 terminal taxa, of which 91 are members of the L. montanus group (58 are assigned to available species and 33 are of uncertain taxonomic status). Our matrix includes 306 morphological and ecological characters and 3057 molecular characters. Morphological characters include 48 continuous and 258 discrete characters, of which 70% (216) are new to the literature. The molecular characters represent five mitochondrial markers. We performed three analyses: a morphology-only matrix, a molecular-only matrix and a matrix including both morphological and molecular characters (total evidence hypothesis). Our total evidence hypothesis recovered the L. montanus group as monophyletic and included >= 12 major clades, revealing an unexpectedly complex phylogeny.

The Liolaemus montanus group is a diverse group of lizards that ranges from central Peru to southwestern Mendoza, Argentina, including much of the Plurinational State of Bolivia ("Bolivia") and Chile. The species of this group mainly inhabit high elevation areas with cold temperatures. In the last years, several species of this group have been described, mostly in Argentina and Chile. In Bolivia, there are at least thirteen valid species belonging to the L. montanus group. In this study, we describe a new species of the L. montanus group with a marked endemism in the Cordillera de Sama of the Tarija Department, Bolivia, and a combination of unique character states that allows its formal description as a new species. The phylogenetic relationships based on analysis of 159 morphological characters suggest that it belongs to the L. montanus group, and that it is closest to Liolaemus pulcherrimus, which is found allopatrically in a small area of the Jujuy Province, Argentina. The multivariate analyses of 66 morphological characters support the phylogenetic relationships. Statistical analyses of inter-species comparisons of morphological characters are not considered the only methods due to the non-independence of some characters states among species; thus, a phylogenetic analysis is recommended. The detailed revision of specimens of the L. montanus group held in the collections of Bolivia is filling major geographic gaps and improving our understanding of the phylogenetic and biogeographic relationships of this widely distributed group of South American lizards.

Novel paradigms and advancement of collections-based research for solving societal and global issues has prompted scientists in recent decades to advocate for collections that improve associated data holistically. We review current knowledge, philosophies, and advocacy of this approach to natural history collections and present information about a new natural history collection that has been founded on many of these principles as a result of this call to action. This collection has resulted in the unification of three Bolivian and two American institutions, and provides a vehicle for improved educational and research opportunities in an underprivileged and underrepresented area. These novel paradigms are conceptualized in our models of specimen data and natural history collections use and summarize holistic approaches to data collection, scientific collaboration, education, and public outreach. These approaches address biodiversity conservation from a global perspective but focus on the importance of natural history collections and biodiversity infrastructure in developing countries. We suggest that natural history collections follow this framework to address global biodiversity challenges.

Despite the development of adaptation initiatives that are showing to be effective the existent climate change and variability public adaptation policies and strategies are still insufficient due to the severity of observed impacts, particularly those related to extreme events. During the 1990s half of the world’s population lived in cities and the effects of climate change have also started to become apparent; as a result, large numbers of people are exposed to climate change, variability and extremes effects in urban areas. Cities are periodically affected by climate extreme events that are likely increasing in intensity and/or frequency. This chapter shows some results of risk factors research, an example of a successful implemented adaptation measure based on an early warning system (EWS), and vulnerability, hazard and risk maps developed after the occurrence of a deadly landslide in February 2002 in La Paz city, Bolivia. A “mega-landslide” occurred on February 2011 which activated the EWS immediately after the first cracks were detected in 26.4% of La Paz area, followed by a massive evacuation of people at risk which prevented the loss of human lives. This successful EWS and mapping experience showed to be an effective adaptation measure for cities exposed to increasing hydro-climatic extreme events. Finally, the authors present a list of updated adaptation measures to further reduce harms and losses.

We expanded the known distribution of the leaflitter frog Pristimantis ockendeni (Boulenger, 1912) with a new record from Madidi National Park, La Paz, Bolivia. This represents the southernmost record along the Andes for this species. Individuals were found in montane savanna and gallery forest at about 1800 m above sea level close to the Machariapo River near the community of Sarayo.

Three new species of Psychrophrynella from the Bolivian section of the Cordillera de Apolobamba are described. The new species are distinguished from their closest relatives mainly by characters such as colour pattern, size, and skin texture. With the addition of these three new species, the diversity of the genus Psychrophrynella in Bolivia increases to 21 species. The protected Area Natural de Manejo Integrado Nacional (ANMIN) Apolobamba holds seven endemic species, and it is highly likely that more undescribed forms will be discovered when new surveys are conducted in this region, underscoring the need to preserve its rich endemic amphibian fauna.

La revision exhaustiva en los ejemplares del grupo Liolaemus montanus depositados en la Coleccion Boliviana de Fauna permite ampliar la distribucion geografica de la especie Liolaemus pleopholis de oeste a este llegando a territorio boliviano y considerarla como un primer registro para el pais.

This research was partially funded by projects CLG2008-04164 and CLG2011-30393 of the Spanish government (PI: I. De la Riva). Drawings were made by I. Diez-Cortaberria. This paper greatly benefited from the comments of two anonymous reviewers and the Associate Editor.

Climate change and variability is impacting health, across different spatial scales, ecosystems, and water supply and quality. In Bolivia climate change is operating in a framework of poverty and inequality. This chapter focuses on the Bolivian Chaco ecosystems water availability and indigenous health. An ecohealth research was launched to evaluate rural communities and their vulnerability and impacts to current and future climate conditions. The participatory-based approach incorporates community and indigenous organizations, local and national health, and meteorological services. Main observed impacts at Chaco are water stress and warming affecting watersheds, ecosystems and health. Water-borne diseases (WBD) and diarrheal diseases (DD) affected most children evaluated. An average decrease in rainfall of 5-12 %, up to 25 % in winter, especially at the middle and low watershed, is observed. Future increases in temperature (+ 1-2 degrees C for 2030-2050), modified rainy patterns and reduced water availability are expected. The both observed and expected warming and less rainfall are correlated with diarrheal vulnerability (VCCDD) and the number of DD cases at rural and indigenous communities. Thus, increasing trends of WBD and DD are likely for 2030-2050. This experience was useful to design Chaco region climate change policies and indigenous health adaptation strategies focused on WBD/DD. These included: raising awareness about water and health climate vulnerability and impacts, increasing investments for water sources protection, establishing systems to compensate and protect watersheds and water springs, capacity building, WBD/DD prevention actions, and clean technologies for economic activities.