INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Dementia is a global health priority with no cure, underscoring the need for early risk detection. Changes in vascular function occur during dementia development. Therefore, we aimed to determine if vascular dysfunction could be an early marker for dementia risk. METHODS: Twelve participants were recruited for a pilot study (young healthy: n=3, 30±3 years; older healthy: n=6, 63±12 years; mild cognitive impairment [MCI]: n=3, 79±5 years). Resting cerebral blood velocity in the middle cerebral artery (MCAv) and blood flow in the internal carotid artery (ICA) were assessed using transcranial Doppler and duplex ultrasound. Vascular function was assessed in the central (pulse wave velocity [PWV] and augmentation index [AIx@75]), peripheral (brachial artery flow-mediated dilation [bFMD]), and cerebral (cerebral flow-mediated dilation [cFMD] using 30s hypercapnic stimulus) circulation. Blood pressure and heart rate were recorded at rest. One-way ANOVA with Tukey–Kramer post hoc tests were used. RESULTS: There were no differences in blood pressure (p=0.304) or heart rate (p=0.874). MCAv was highest in young individuals and lowest in MCI (significantly different [p=0.007]). ICA flow did not differ between groups (p=0.274). No significant group differences were observed for bFMD (young: 5.8±3.6%, older: 4.8±1.9%, MCI: 4.2±1.9%), cFMD (young: 8.0±3.3%, older: 4.1±1.6%, MCI: 6.3±3.0%), or AIx@75 (young: 11.7±18.2%, older: 13.6±7.4%, MCI: 36±4.2%) (all p>0.05), however, function was lower in the older and MCI groups. There was a significant group effect for PWV (p=0.015), with the MCI group being higher than both healthy groups (both p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Cerebral blood velocity and vascular function (central, peripheral, and cerebral circulations) may be reduced in individuals with MCI. However, this may not be greater than what is seen in healthy aging. Vascular dysfunction could contribute to cognitive decline and may represent a potential early marker of risk, and avenue for future therapeutic intervention. Confirmation in larger cohorts is required.

Abstract Exercise as a medical intervention is effective to help prevent and manage many chronic and complex diseases, including dementia. There is evidence to suggest that regular aerobic exercise protects against age‐related brain atrophy and reduces the risk of cognitive decline. The mechanisms by which exercise infers a neuroprotective effect remain to be established but may be related to a maintenance of brain volume and neuronal survival, improved cerebrovascular density and function, and/or increased synaptic plasticity. In addition, there is growing evidence to suggest the beneficial effects of exercise on brain health and cognitive function are, at least in part, mediated by factors released by skeletal muscle during contraction. The fact that the brain responds to exercise suggests that muscle‐derived peripheral factors, or “myokines,” may play a key role in muscle–brain crosstalk and exercise neuroprotection. However, the most effective “dose” of aerobic exercise to promote beneficial changes in these myokine pathways is currently unknown. Specifically, most of the evidence to date is from studies that have used moderate‐intensity exercise, and research investigating the merit of high‐intensity exercise is scarce. Considering the well‐established role of high‐intensity interval training in protecting against numerous medical conditions, more research is needed to identify the most effective “dose” of exercise to improve the beneficial effects of these myokines. Highlights Neuroprotection through exercise: Regular aerobic exercise mitigates age‐related brain atrophy and cognitive decline via multiple mechanisms, including brain volume maintenance, improved cerebrovascular function, and synaptic plasticity. Myokines as mediators: Muscle‐derived factors (myokines) play a crucial role in muscle–brain crosstalk, significantly contributing to the neuroprotective effects of exercise. Intensity matters: The review underscores the necessity to define and study exercise intensity, revealing high‐intensity exercise may be as effective, if not more, in promoting neuroprotective myokine levels compared to moderate‐intensity exercise. Future research directions: This review emphasizes the need for well‐controlled studies to explore the optimal exercise dose for enhancing myokine pathways and their implications for neurodegenerative disease prevention.

Introduction/PurposeCompression garments are a commonly used recovery aid following resistance exercise, which may improve muscle blood flow and perceived recovery. However, there has been limited insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms that may mediate the physiological effects of compression garments. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of compression tights on markers of muscle protein synthesis, muscle blood flow, and indices of recovery following a bout of resistance exercise.MethodsTwenty resistance-trained participants (5 females, 15 males) completed a leg-press exercise session followed by a 5-h recovery period wearing either commercially available compression tights (COMP, n = 10) or no tights (CON, n = 10). Physiological (markers of muscle protein synthesis, muscle blood flow, blood lactate, blood glucose), perceptual (total quality of recovery, perceived muscle soreness, and subjective well-being), and performance measures (countermovement jump and isometric mid-thigh pull) were collected at baseline, immediately post-exercise (performance and perceptual only), and at 1 h (physiological and perceptual only), 5 h, and 24 h post-exercise.ResultsNo significant (P < 0.05) interactions were observed between groups in physiological, performance, and perceptual measures. There were main effects of time for post-exercise measures compared with baseline (P < 0.05), with increased markers of muscle protein synthesis, muscle blood flow, blood lactate, muscle soreness, and reduced blood glucose, total quality of recovery, subjective well-being, and countermovement jump height for both groups.ConclusionsCommercially available compression tights used post-resistance exercise did not influence muscle protein synthesis markers, muscle blood flow, or indices of exercise recovery following resistance exercise in the current study.

We investigated the molecular mechanisms of exercise adaptations in human muscle by integrating genome, methylome, transcriptome, and proteome data from over 1,000 participants (2,340 muscle samples). We identified distinctive signatures associated with maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), and multi-omics integration uncovered five key genes as robust exercise markers across layers, with transcription factors functioning as activators, synergizing with DNA methylation to regulate gene expression. Minimal sex differences were observed, while modality-specific analysis highlighted distinct pathways for aerobic and resistance exercise, contrasting with muscle disuse patterns. Finally, we created a webtool, OMAx, featuring our individual omics and integration analysis. These findings provide a comprehensive multi-omics framework for understanding exercise-induced molecular adaptations, offering insights into muscle health, cardiorespiratory fitness, and their roles in aging and disease prevention.

Over the two last decades, whole-body cryotherapy/cryostimulation (WBC) has emerged as an exciting non-pharmacological treatment influencing inflammatory events at a cellular and physiological level, which can result in improved sleep quality, faster neuromuscular recovery after high-intensity exercise, and chronic pain relief for patients suffering different types of diseases (fibromyalgia, rheumatism, arthritis). Some evidence even suggests that WBC has benefits on mental health (depression, anxiety disorders) and cognitive functions in both adults and older adults, due to increased circulating BDNF levels. Recently, some safety concerns have been expressed by influential public health authorities (e.g., FDA, INSERM) based on reports from patients who developed adverse events upon or following WBC treatment. However, part of the data used to support these claims involved individuals whose entire body (except head) was exposed to extreme cold vaporized liquid nitrogen while standing in a narrow bathtub. Such a procedure is known as partial-body cryotherapy (PBC), and is often erroneously mistaken to be whole-body cryotherapy. Although having similarities in terms of naming and pursued aims, these two approaches are fundamentally different. The present article reviews the available literature on the main safety concerns associated with the use of true whole-body cryotherapy. English- and French-language reports of empirical studies including case reports, case series, and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified through searches of PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Web of Science electronic databases. Five case reports and two RCTs were included for a total of 16 documented adverse events (AEs). A critical in-depth evaluation of these AEs (type, severity, context of onset, participant’s medical background, follow-up) is proposed and used to illustrate that WBC-related safety risks are within acceptable limits and can be proactively prevented by adhering to existing recommendations, contraindications, and commonsense guidelines.

Ageing is associated with widespread physiological changes prominent within all tissues, including skeletal muscle and the brain, which lead to a decline in physical function. To tackle the growing health and economic burdens associated with an ageing population, the concept of healthy ageing has become a major research priority. Changes in skeletal muscle mitochondrial characteristics have been suggested to make an important contribution to the reductions in skeletal muscle function with age, and age-related changes in mitochondrial content, respiratory function, morphology, and mitochondrial DNA have previously been reported. However, not all studies report changes in mitochondrial characteristics with ageing, and there is increasing evidence to suggest that physical activity (or inactivity) throughout life is a confounding factor when interpreting age-associated changes. Given that physical activity is a potent stimulus for inducing beneficial adaptations to mitochondrial characteristics, delineating the influence of physical activity on the changes in skeletal muscle that occur with age is complicated. This review aims to summarise our current understanding and knowledge gaps regarding age-related changes to mitochondrial characteristics within skeletal muscle, as well as to provide some novel insights into brain mitochondria, and to propose avenues of future research and targeted interventions. Furthermore, where possible, we incorporate discussions of the modifying effects of physical activity, exercise, and training status, to purported age-related changes in mitochondrial characteristics.

OBJECTIVE:Sub-optimal care of people living with dementia has serious consequences for older populations. The 2021 Australian Royal Commission noted that a large proportion of older adults in aged care live with dementia, yet there are limitations in the knowledge and understanding of staff who care for them. In the pursuit of educating pharmacists, physicians, allied health care professionals, researchers, academics, people living with dementia and their carers, and the public, who are facing the challenges of dementia management, the 'Best Practice in Dementia Health Care' conference was held on November 10, 2022 at Western Health (Sunshine Hospital, Melbourne, Australia). METHODS:Sixteen experts presented on the current practice and challenges associated with delivering best practice dementia health care to older Australians, often highlighting how medication-related challenges impacted on their area of practice. RESULTS:Presenters highlighted the importance of individualised medication management plans, considerations of culture and Indigenous communities, the role of technology, and the impact of exercise and the physical environment on care of people living with dementia. Key clinical practice messages from each expert presenter fit into four main topics: 'navigating complexities of medication management'; 'enhancing wellbeing'; 'supportive settings and environments'; and 'programs and services improving care'. CONCLUSIONS:Pharmacists are crucial members of allied health care teams. They have the necessary medication and comorbidity expertise to review medication regimens, liaise with all health care providers, and provide holistic, pharmacological and non-pharmacological patient education. Towards providing best practice dementia health care, pharmacists can contribute in several ways, such as providing health practitioner education to increase understanding about medications and how they can impact on allied health practice, to ensure that medications are prescribed appropriately and safely. Further, pharmacists can make available resources to ensure people living with dementia receive culturally safe and appropriate care, while advocating for greater understanding of the history and experiences of people living with dementia to ensure care aligns with their day-to-day routines. Finally, pharmacists can provide peer-support to other health care professionals and care staff to ensure optimal management of behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia. The information and insights shared at the conference can serve as a valuable resource for pharmacists and other health care professionals and researchers working to improve the lives of those living with dementia.

Mood state and alertness are negatively affected by sleep loss, and can be positively influenced by exercise. However, the potential mitigating effects of exercise on sleep-loss-induced changes in mood state and alertness have not been studied comprehensively. Twenty-four healthy young males were matched into one of three, 5-night sleep interventions: normal sleep (NS; total sleep time (TST) per night = 449 ± 22 min), sleep restriction (SR; TST = 230 ± 5 min), or sleep restriction and exercise (SR + EX; TST = 235 ± 5 min, plus three sessions of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE)). Mood state was assessed using the profile of mood states (POMS) and a daily well-being questionnaire. Alertness was assessed using psychomotor vigilance testing (PVT). Following the intervention, POMS total mood disturbance scores significantly increased for both the SR and SR + EX groups, and were greater than the NS group (SR vs NS; 31.0 ± 10.7 A.U., [4.4-57.7 A.U.], p = 0.020; SR + EX vs NS; 38.6 ± 14.9 A.U., [11.1-66.1 A.U.], p = 0.004). The PVT reaction times increased in the SR (p = 0.049) and SR + EX groups (p = 0.033) and the daily well-being questionnaire revealed increased levels of fatigue in both groups (SR; p = 0.041, SR + EX; p = 0.026) during the intervention. Despite previously demonstrated physiological benefits of performing three sessions of HIIE during five nights of sleep restriction, the detriments to mood, wellness, and alertness were not mitigated by exercise in this study. Whether alternatively timed exercise sessions or other exercise protocols could promote more positive outcomes on these factors during sleep restriction requires further research.

IntroductionRegular aerobic exercise is associated with improved cognitive function, implicating it as a strategy to reduce dementia risk. This is reinforced by the association between greater cardiorespiratory fitness and larger brain volume, superior cognitive performance and lower dementia risk. However, the optimal aerobic exercise dose, namely the intensity and mode of delivery, to improve brain health and lower dementia risk has received less attention. We aim to determine the effect of different doses of aerobic exercise training on markers of brain health in sedentary middle-aged adults, hypothesising that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) will be more beneficial than moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT).Methods and analysisIn this two-group parallel, open-label blinded endpoint randomised trial, 70 sedentary middle-aged (45–65 years) adults will be randomly allocated to one of two 12-week aerobic exercise training interventions matched for total exercise training volume: (1) MICT (n=35) or HIIT (n=35). Participants will perform ~50 min exercise training sessions, 3 days per week, for 12 weeks. The primary outcome will be measured as between-group difference in cardiorespiratory fitness (peak oxygen uptake) change from baseline to the end of training. Secondary outcomes include between-group differences in cognitive function and ultra-high field MRI (7T) measured markers of brain health (brain blood flow, cerebrovascular function, brain volume, white matter microstructural integrity and resting state functional brain activity) changes from baseline to the end of training.Ethics and disseminationThe Victoria University Human Research Ethics Committee (VUHREC) has approved this study (HRE20178), and all protocol modifications will be communicated to the relevant parties (eg, VUHREC, trial registry). Findings from this study will be disseminated via peer-review publications, conference presentations, clinical communications and both mainstream and social media.Trial registration numberANZCTR12621000144819.

One of the proposed mechanisms underlying the benefits of sports compression garments may be alterations in peripheral blood flow. We aimed to determine if sports compression garments alter measures of peripheral blood flow at rest, as well as during, immediately after and in recovery from a physiological challenge (i.e. exercise or an orthostatic challenge). We conducted a systematic literature search of databases including Scopus, SPORTDiscus and PubMed/MEDLINE. The criteria for inclusion of studies were: (1) original papers in English and a peer-reviewed journal; (2) assessed effect of compression garments on a measure of peripheral blood flow at rest and/or before, during or after a physiological challenge; (3) participants were healthy and without cardiovascular or metabolic disorders; and (4) a study population including athletes and physically active or healthy participants. The PEDro scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used. Changes in blood flow were quantified by standardised mean difference (SMD) [± 95

The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological effects of compression tights on blood flow following exercise and to assess if the placebo effect is responsible for any acute performance or psychological benefits. Twenty-two resistance-trained participants completed a lower-body resistance exercise session followed by a 4 h recovery period. Participants were assigned a post-exercise recovery intervention of either compression tights applied for 4 h (COMP), placebo tablet consumed every hour for 4 h (PLA) or control (CON). Physiological (markers of venous return, muscle blood flow, blood metabolites, thigh girth), performance (countermovement jump, isometric mid-thigh pull), and psychological measures (perceived muscle soreness, total quality of recovery) were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, at 30 (markers of venous return and muscle blood flow) and 60 min (blood metabolites, thigh girth and psychological measures) intervals during 4 h of recovery, and at 4 h, 24 h and 48 h post-exercise. No significant (P > 0.05) differences were observed between interventions. However, effect size analysis revealed COMP enhanced markers of venous return, muscle blood flow, recovery of performance measures, psychological measures and reduced thigh girth compared to PLA and CON. There were no group differences in blood metabolites. These findings suggest compression tights worn after resistance exercise enhance blood flow and indices of exercise recovery, and that these benefits were not due to a placebo effect.

This study aimed to define, develop, and validate a subjective scale of training quality. Two related studies were used to 1) define training quality and 2) develop and validate a subjective scale. Part One: a purposive sample of 15 sub-elite (i.e. national) and elite (i.e. international) swimmers participated in one, 20-30-min semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis of interview responses established three constructs to define training quality. These were the physical, technical, and mental aspects of training. Part Two: development of the Subjective Training Quality (STQ) scale based on the three constructs identified in Part One. 252 sub-elite and elite athletes, across eight sports completed the STQ scale. Cronbach's alpha (α) assessed internal consistency, histogram plot analysis assessed face validity, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) compared physical, technical, and mental constructs with training quality. Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) evaluated CFA quality of fit. Physical, technical, and mental constructs demonstrated a high "acceptable" level of internal consistency (α = 0.85) and excellent face validity. Comparatively, the CFA quality of fit was "excellent" (RMSEA = <0.01 "good", SRMR = 0.00 "perfect"). The STQ scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency and face validity, establishing capacity to monitor training quality. The STQ scale could be used in conjunction with traditional training monitoring tools to provide additional insight into athlete's training quality. Further investigation is required to determine how the STQ scale may interact with subjective and objective training performance measures, and how it could be incorporated into daily training monitoring.HighlightsAthletes perceive the subjective training quality (STQ) scale adequately represents the physical, technical, and mental constructs of training quality.Excellent internal consistency and confirmatory factor analysis fit demonstrates the STQ scale is an effective tool to monitor training quality.With additional validation, the STQ scale could be used in conjunction with traditional load monitoring tools to provide greater insight to an athlete's training response, and subsequently inform training prescription.

Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) is defined as non-thermal electromagnetic irradiation through laser or light-emitting diode sources. In recent decades, PBMT has attracted attention as a potential preconditioning method. The current meta-analysis was conducted to assess the effectiveness of PBMT in improving mode-specific exercise performance in healthy young adults. A computerized literature search was conducted, ending on 15 May 2022. The databases searched were PubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Embase, SPORTDiscus, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database. Inclusion/exclusion criteria limited articles to crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies investigating the PBMT effects as a preconditioning method. The included trials were synthesized according to exercise mode (single-joint, cycling, running, and swimming). All results were combined using the standardized mean differences (SMDs) method and the 95

BACKGROUND:Studies investigating the effects of common recovery modalities following acute strenuous exercise have reported mixed results.OBJECTIVES:This systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression compared the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) against other common recovery modalities on recovery of athletic performance, perceptual outcomes, and creatine kinase (CK) following acute strenuous exercise in physically active populations.STUDY DESIGN:Systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression.METHODS:The MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EmCare, and Embase databases were searched up until September 2022. Studies were included if they were peer reviewed, published in English, included participants who were involved in sport or deemed physically active, compared CWI with other recovery modalities following an acute bout of strenuous exercise, and included measures of performance, perceptual measures of recovery, or CK.RESULTS:Twenty-eight studies were meta-analysed. CWI was superior to other recovery methods for recovering from muscle soreness, and similar to other methods for recovery of muscular power and flexibility. CWI was more effective than active recovery, contrast water therapy and warm-water immersion for most recovery outcomes. Air cryotherapy was significantly more effective than CWI for the promotion of recovery of muscular strength and the immediate recovery of muscular power (1-h post-exercise). Meta-regression revealed that water temperature and exposure duration were rarely exposure moderators.CONCLUSION:CWI is effective for promoting recovery from acute strenuous exercise in physically active populations compared with other common recovery methods.PROTOCOL REGISTRATION:Open Science Framework: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NGP7C.

Studies investigating the effects of cold-water immersion (CWI) on the recovery of athletic performance, perceptual measures and creatine kinase (CK) have reported mixed results in physically active populations. The purpose of this systematic review was to investigate the effects of CWI on recovery of athletic performance, perceptual measures and CK following an acute bout of exercise in physically active populations. Systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. A systematic search was conducted in September 2021 using Medline, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EmCare and Embase databases. Studies were included if they were peer reviewed and published in English, included participants who were involved in sport or deemed physically active, compared CWI with passive recovery methods following an acute bout of strenuous exercise and included athletic performance, athlete perception and CK outcome measures. Studies were divided into two strenuous exercise subgroups: eccentric exercise and high-intensity exercise. Random effects meta-analyses were used to determine standardised mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals. Meta-regression analyses were completed with water temperature and exposure durations as continuous moderator variables. Fifty-two studies were included in the meta-analyses. CWI improved the recovery of muscular power 24 h after eccentric exercise (SMD 0.34 [95% CI 0.06–0.62]) and after high-intensity exercise (SMD 0.22 [95% CI 0.004–0.43]), and reduced serum CK (SMD − 0.85 [95% CI − 1.61 to − 0.08]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. CWI also improved muscle soreness (SMD − 0.89 [95% CI − 1.48 to − 0.29]) and perceived feelings of recovery (SMD 0.66 [95% CI 0.29–1.03]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. There was no significant influence on the recovery of strength performance following either eccentric or high-intensity exercise. Meta-regression indicated that shorter time and lower temperatures were related to the largest beneficial effects on serum CK (duration and temperature dose effects) and endurance performance (duration dose effects only) after high-intensity exercise. CWI was an effective recovery tool after high-intensity exercise, with positive outcomes occurring for muscular power, muscle soreness, CK, and perceived recovery 24 h after exercise. However, after eccentric exercise, CWI was only effective for positively influencing muscular power 24 h after exercise. Dose–response relationships emerged for positively influencing endurance performance and reducing serum CK, indicating that shorter durations and lower temperatures may improve the efficacy of CWI if used after high-intensity exercise. Emma Moore is supported by a Research Training Program (Domestic) Scholarship from the Australian Commonwealth Department of Education and Training. Open Science Framework: 10.17605/OSF.IO/SRB9D.

Purpose: This study aimed to independently validate a wearable inertial sensor designed to monitor training and performance metrics in swimmers. Methods: A total of 4 male (21 [4] y, 1 national and 3 international) and 6 female (22 [3] y, 1 national and 5 international) swimmers completed 15 training sessions in an outdoor 50-m pool. Swimmers were fitted with a wearable device (TritonWear, 9-axis inertial measurement unit with triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope, andmagnetometer), placed under the swim cap on top of the occipital protuberance. Video footage was captured for each session to establish criterion values. Absolute error, standardized effect, and Pearson correlation coefficient were used to determine the validity of the wearable device against video footage for total swim distance, total stroke count, mean stroke count, and mean velocity. A Fisher exact test was used to analyze the accuracy of stroke-type identification. Results: Total swim distance was underestimated by the device relative to video analysis. Absolute error was consistently higher for total and mean stroke count, and mean velocity, relative to video analysis. Across all sessions, the device incorrectly detected total time spent in backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, and freestyle by 51% (15%). The device did not detect time spent in drill. Intraclass correlation coefficient results demonstrated excellent intrarater reliability between repeated measures across all swimming metrics. Conclusions: The wearable device investigated in this study does not accurately measure distance, stroke count, and velocity swimming metrics or detect stroke type. Its use as a training monitoring tool in swimming is limited.

Background Compression garments are regularly worn during exercise to improve physical performance, mitigate fatigue responses, and enhance recovery. However, evidence for their efficacy is varied and the methodological approaches and outcome measures used within the scientific literature are diverse. Objectives The aim of this scoping review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of compression garments on commonly assessed outcome measures in response to exercise, including: performance, biomechanical, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, muscle damage, thermoregulatory, and perceptual responses. Methods A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and CINAHL Complete) was performed from the earliest record to 27 December, 2020. Results In total, 183 studies were identified for qualitative analysis with the following breakdown: performance and muscle function outcomes: 115 studies (63%), biomechanical and neuromuscular: 59 (32%), blood and saliva markers: 85 (46%), cardiovascular: 76 (42%), cardiorespiratory: 39 (21%), thermoregulatory: 19 (10%) and perceptual: 98 (54%). Approximately 85% (n = 156) of studies were published between 2010 and 2020. Conclusions Evidence is equivocal as to whether garments improve physical performance, with little evidence supporting improvements in kinetic or kinematic outcomes. Compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems. Findings suggest potential increases in arterial blood flow; however, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully change metabolic responses, blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures. Compression garments increase localised skin temperature and may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged. It is unlikely that compression garments negatively influence exercise-related outcomes. Future research should assess wearer belief in compression garments, report pressure ranges at multiple sites as well as garment material, and finally examine individual responses and varying compression coverage areas.

While research suggests that somatosensation contributes to elite athletic performance, little is known regarding the capacity of ergogenic aids (eg, compression) to enhance somatosensation. This study assessed the effects of compression socks on functional ankle somatosensory ability, and whether any effects depended on baseline somatosensation or ankle instability. Forty-two participants performed somatosensation testing using the active movement extent discrimination analysis (AMEDA) device, whereby the accuracy that participants could identify repeated ankle inversion movements of different extents were measured. Participants performed the AMEDA test on their "stabilizing" and "kicking" legs, with (compression; COMP) and without (barefoot control; CON) compression socks. AMEDA scores were also compared against ankle instability using the Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool (CAIT). There were no condition (P = .417) or testing-leg (P = .507) effects for mean AMEDA scores. When participants were ranked into tertiles based on barefoot AMEDA scores, COMP reduced ankle somatosensation in the high tertile (P <= .003) and increased ankle somatosensation in the low tertile (P = .023, stabilizing). Compression had no effect (P > .05) on AMEDA scores when participants were split into "low" and "high" CAIT groups. Wearing compression may amplify sensory input in a way that enhances somatosensation for individuals with poor somatosensation, but overloads input and impairs somatosensation of those with good somatosensation. Screening of barefoot ankle somatosensation may be used to identify individuals who might benefit from using compression to improve ankle somatosensation, such as individuals returning to weight-bearing activity following injury, and/or individuals with diminished somatosensation (eg, elderly).

Background:The benefits associated with sports compression garments are thought to be closely related to enhanced blood flow.However,find-ings are equivocal,possibly due to heterogeneity in the techniques used for measuring blood flow,the garment types used,and the pressures applied.This study combined Doppler ultrasound and near-infrared spectroscopy technologies to provide the first comprehensive assessment of the effects of 3 sports compression garment types on markers of venous return and muscle blood flow at rest.Methods:Resting lower-limb blood flow measures(markers of venous return,muscle blood flow,and muscle oxygenation)of 22 elite,junior,male basketball players(age=17.2±0.9 years,mean±SD)were assessed in 4 separate conditions:no compression(CON),compression tights(TIGHTS),compression shorts(SHORTS),and compression socks(SOCKS).Markers of venous return(cross-sectional area,time-averaged mean and peak blood flow velocity,and venous blood flow)were measured via Doppler ultrasound at the popliteal and common femoral veins.Muscle blood flow and muscle oxygenation were measured in the gastrocnemius medialis and vastus lateralis using near-infrared spectroscopy.Results:Popliteal markers of venous return were higher in TIGHTS compared to CON(p＜0.01)and SHORTS(p＜0.01),with SOCKS values higher compared with CON(p＜0.05).Common femoral vein markers of venous return were higher for all conditions compared to CON(p＜0.05),with TIGHTS values also higher compared to SOCKS(p＜0.05).Gastrocnemius medialis blood flow was higher for TIGHTS compared to CON(p=0.000),SOCKS(p=0.012),and SHORTS(p=0.000),with SOCKS higher compared to SHORTS(p=0.046).Vastus lateralis blood flow was higher for TIGHTS compared to CON(p=0.028)and SOCKS(p=0.019),with SHORTS also higher compared to CON(p=0.012)and SOCKS(p=0.005).Gastrocnemius medialis oxygenation was higher for TIGHTS compared to CON(p=0.003),SOCKS(p=0.033),and SHORTS(p=0.003),with SOCKS higher compared to CON(p=0.044)and SHORTS(p=0.032).Vastus lateralis oxygenation was higher for TIGHTS compared to CON(p=0.020)and SOCKS(p=0.006).Conclusion:Markers of venous return,muscle blood flow,and muscle oxygenation are increased with sports compression garments.TIGHTS are most effective,potentially because of the larger body area compressed.

The microvasculature is important for both health and exercise tolerance in a range of populations. However, methodological limitations have meant changes in microvascular blood flow are rarely assessed in humans during interventions designed to affect skeletal muscle blood flow such as the wearing of compression garments. The aim of this study is, for the first time, to use contrast‐enhanced ultrasound to directly measure the effects of compression on muscle microvascular blood flow alongside measures of femoral artery blood flow and muscle oxygenation following intense exercise in healthy adults. It was hypothesized that both muscle microvascular and femoral artery blood flows would be augmented with compression garments as compared with a control condition. Ten recreationally active participants completed two repeated‐sprint exercise sessions, with and without lower‐limb compression tights. Muscle microvascular blood flow, femoral arterial blood flow (2D and Doppler ultrasound), muscle oxygenation (near‐infrared spectroscopy), cycling performance, and venous blood samples were measured/taken throughout exercise and the 1‐hour post‐exercise recovery period. Compared with control, compression reduced muscle microvascular blood volume and attenuated the exercise‐induced increase in microvascular velocity and flow immediately after exercise and 1 hour post‐exercise. Compression increased femoral artery diameter and augmented the exercise‐induced increase in femoral arterial blood flow during exercise. Markers of blood oxygen extraction in muscle were increased with compression during and after exercise. Compression had no effect on blood lactate, glucose, or exercise performance. We provide new evidence that lower‐limb compression attenuates the exercise‐induced increase in skeletal muscle microvascular blood flow following exercise, despite a divergent increase in femoral artery blood flow. Decreased muscle microvascular perfusion is offset by increased muscle oxygen extraction, a potential mechanism allowing for the maintenance of exercise performance.