This entry provides a broad‐based overview of the major concepts, facts, and theories related to Japanese English, as well as a summary of the theoretical frontline regarding research which has been conducted in this area in recent decades. The entry provides an introduction, and then explores the forms which Japanese English takes in terms of phonology, grammar, discourse and pragmatics. Finally, it looks at research into pedagogical implications and offers a conclusion. It concludes that the forms of Japanese English should become increasingly well defined in coming years, as the world becomes increasingly globalized and interconnected.

This research focuses on the role of code-switching in bilingual education, examining the cognitive and social implications of the practice. Using a qualitative approach with a case study method, this research analyzes how code-switching affects students' comprehension and social interaction in the bilingual classroom. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, participatory observation, and document analysis in several bilingual schools. The results show that code-switching plays an important role in helping students understand complex material and in strengthening their social identity. Cognitively, code-switching allows students to utilize their first language to understand difficult concepts, while socially, the practice reinforces inclusivity and positive dynamics in the classroom. The implications of the findings confirm that code-switching is an effective pedagogical strategy and not simply a communication tool. The recommendations of this study encourage educators and policy makers to integrate code-switching as an integral part of teaching strategies in bilingual education, to support more inclusive and effective learning.

English language learning in Indonesian schools is a crucial element in preparing students to face globalization and competition in the job market. This study explores the impact of English language learning on cognitive development, educational opportunities, and career prospects. Using a library research method, various literatures from SINTA, WoS and Scopus indexed journals were analyzed to identify the benefits and challenges associated with English language teaching. Findings indicate that English proficiency enhances critical thinking skills, analytical abilities, and provides a competitive edge in the global job market. Despite policies such as the 2013 Curriculum improving English competencies, there are still disparities in teaching quality and resources. Challenges include limited access in rural areas and the need for more interactive pedagogical approaches. This study emphasizes the importance of sustained support from government, schools, and communities, as well as the utilization of educational technology to overcome these barriers. The conclusion of this study is that by improving English proficiency among students, Indonesia can enhance its global competitiveness and better prepare its youth for the era of globalization.

This article takes a macro look at the canon of scholarship in the World Englishes and English as an international language paradigms, which fundamentally derive from the work of Kachru and Smith, and then considers the more recent emergence of research published under the rubric of 'Global Englishes' by way of the English as a lingua franca paradigm by Jenkins and scholars she has developed. We provide a theoretical assessment of the various paradigms which operate under the World Englishes umbrella, and demonstrate the contexts and forces which have helped to bring about the expansion and nuanced differences among these constructs. Terminology in any field is very important, and we also weigh the projected usage of these terms in coming years.

This chapter considers phonological and morpho-syntactic features, then moves on to discourse and pragmatic features, and finally, to a short section on lexical creativity. It covers a range of features in a relatively comprehensive manner, given the limits of an edited collection. Generally, Japanese English (JE) is perceived to be intelligible to many non-native speakers of English. Unless the phonological structure is completely reorganised, ESL/EFL speakers of other languages can accept JE’s foreign accent. However, the repeated use of the same nouns in JE can be a writing strategy shared among English as a lingua franca journalists around the world, to make an article more explicit and intelligible to a variety of readers. The Japanese are a very creative people, and enjoy abbreviating expressions, which may be too long, into something more easily expressed. Also, with considerable American contact during the post-Second World War military occupation, there has been a large amount of English borrowing into Japanese.

This new volume exploring functional variations of English is the latest – but most certainly not the last – scholarly effort contributing to our understanding of the ways in which English is used in different contexts worldwide and the implications that these uses have in various social domains. As this is also my own area of academic interest, I am immediately drawn to any book dealing with this topic. The first question that drives my curiosity is: “what will I learn that is new, fresh and exciting?”And this is precisely the spirit with which I approached the present volume. As Ravinder Gargesh (to whom the volume is dedicated) reminds us in his foreword, this broad topic has been an active area of research for decades. Consequently, the quest for new perspectives and insights becomes simultaneously more arduous but also more intriguing. In this case, the novelty of the volume is, according to Nobuyuki Honna, evident:

This chapter is jointly written by the three co-editors of this volume. In line with the book's title, "Functional Variations in English: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Challenges", we begin by outlining a theoretical view of functional variation that is in keeping with the work of Ravinder Gargesh, to whom the volume is dedicated. Gargesh works in genre studies, is very active in world Englishes, and is a teacher of English. A key focus of the chapter, and the rationale of the volume as well, is on what Braj Kachru termed as 'the alchemy of English': the idea that English is often an instrument of individual and societal transformation or transmutation, in which various (multi)linguistic components are magically mixed, resulting in a new and precious outcome. The chapter begins by explaining the pluralistic view of English(es) which informs all of the contributions. We carefully outline the similarities and differences between EIL, world Englishes and ELF: paradigms which are viewed here as not competing, but as mutually supportive. We then summarize the important aspects of each chapter, as the book progresses from general perspectives (Part I), to perspectives from outer circle contexts (Part II), views from the expanding circle (Part III), and finally, to the practical pedagogical implications of functional variation (Part IV). As is inherent with a functional outlook on English, we are concerned with how, and for what purposes, English is used around the world. It is hoped that this chapter can provide a synthesis of the complexity, and commonality seen in the various chapters, and act as a guide to the following chapters.

The chapter considers the case of Japan and its historical involvement with English from the point of earliest contact, through the Meiji Restoration, and analyses the subsequent development of Japanese English (JE) to the present day. It presents a careful discussion of applying Buschfeld and Kautzsch’s EIF Model to Japan, both from the viewpoint of Schneider’s Dynamic Model, and the enhanced perspective offered by the EIF Model. A range of loanwords and morpho-syntactic features are discussed, and well as cultural influences from a variety of external and internal forces. Finally, the chapter investigates possible advantages of – and points that need further definition in – developing the EIF Model and its theoretical contribution to the field. The chapter demonstrates that the EIF Model is indeed useful in the description and categorization of Expanding Circle varieties of English, and helps enhance the world Englishes paradigm to better account for these emerging varieties.

This article begins with background information on English language attitudes and education in the Japanese context, from both an historical and a present-day perspective. It then considers the value of ELF-informed views for the Japanese context: both from educational and business/professional perspectives. From the educational aspect, existing efforts to promote ELF-informed programs are investigated, with analysis of their success and future prospects for growth. Areas of continued resistance to ELF and other pluralistic paradigms in Japan are also explored. From a professional standpoint, the article will outline the actual need for ELF among Japanese working people, and the extent to which ELF comes into play in actual interactions, both in Japan and overseas. I will conclude with a consideration of challenges which remain to be faced for ELF in Japan.

As scholarly work in the pluralistic paradigms of world Englishes (WE), English as an International Language (EIL), and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has progressed since the work of Larry E. Smith and Braj Kachru in the early to mid-1980s, Englishes in the Expanding Circle contexts-once downplayed as 'performance' or 'norm dependent' varieties have become of increasing interest, especially with regard to matters of language pedagogy. Pedagogy draws much less interest in the Outer Circle contexts such as Singapore, Nigeria, or India, where the varieties are quite stable and recognized as 'legitimate'. They are not 'on the way to becoming', but already exist, as S.N. Sridhar once commented to me. For the Expanding Circle, pedagogy is of more concern. English is less widely used in domestic domains and its education begins later. As a result, many scholars have begun to produce volumes that concern implementing language curricula informed by these pluralistic paradigms (Sharifian 2010; Matsuda 2012, 2017; Galloway 2017) as a way to transcend the tendency of SLA/ELT beliefs to be strongly 'native-speakerist'. In spite of these efforts, however, the field has been slow to supplement theory with concrete ideas for classroom application. Fortunately, scholars have responded to this criticism, and their work is becoming more specific: with actual curriculum, course and lesson planning ideas. The current volume by Hino is perhaps the most thoroughly fleshed-out effort to give concrete suggestions and examples to practitioners, and also to provide policy level advice for government officials. The book is short at only 145 pages (not including 24 pages of index and references), but is packed with ideas. We begin with an Introduction, in chapter 1. Hino here provides his basic rationale for 'Liberating' the Expanding Circle through EIL, as in Kachru's 'liberation linguistics' (Kachru 1991). Hino is a voracious reader, and the volume is remarkably well-documented -making it a comprehensive one-stop resource for young academics. For Hino, world

This article considers the Buschfeld-Kautzsch EIF (External and Internal Forces) model from the perspective of the Japan context. The model was developed as an enhancement to Schneiders Dynamic Model of Postcolonial Englishes, which is itself an enhancement of the Kachruvian World Englishes paradigm. The EIF is a flexible model that attempts to incorporate the linguistic, social, and historico-political development of English(es) in both postcolonial and non-postcolonial settings: thus addressing the main problem that variety development has heretofore not been systematically analyzed in Expanding Circle contexts. Hence our aim is to see if the EIF model can account for this development in Japan. We incorporate material and data from an eclectic range of historical and current sources. In the process, we consider the historical development of English in Japan from the Meiji Era to the present day, introduce the EIF model in some detail, and assess the usefulness of the model to help explain how English is growing and developing in Japan. The major findings of the article indicate that the EIF model is useful somewhat problematic, and only partly accounts for variety development of Japanese English. We conclude with some recommendations for improving the model through further testing, so it may become a more useful construct for identifying the process of ongoing variety development in non-postcolonial settings.

While university-level work in the Kachruvian Inner Circle, and to a somewhat lesser extent in the Outer Circle, is conducted in English, the penetration of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) for university classes is also growing steadily in Expanding Circle contexts in Europe, Asia and elsewhere. Education has become a globalized industry, with keen competition among universities to attract the best minds. The chapter presents results of a qualitative empirical study in Nagoya, Japan. Three data sets were gathered and triangulated: surveys administered to graduates, surveys given to teachers/professors, and classroom observations. The chapter focuses primarily on the results of the survey of graduates'. The findings reveal that based on their real-life needs there is clear relevance and urgent need for ELF-informed approaches to English language pedagogy, not only in '4 skills' classes, but also in EMI-based content classes. The data lends support for moving away from a Native Speakerist view of English, to one that prepares students for the realities they will face in today's global classroom, and the globalized business world. The findings have implications which go far beyond Japan, to the increasing number of Expanding Circle institutions worldwide that offer EMI coursework.

This chapter considers the volume herein from the perspective of the metalanguage employed by the editors and contributing authors to convey a new sense of the field of education in a critical manner which calls into question dominant patterns of mainstream entrenched discourse. The Afterword also finds that the chapters in this book are highly consistent, and mutually supportive in their worldview, something which is rare and admirable in such an edited volume. Finally, the chapter outlines a view of English(es) by the contributors, where the language is seen as a flexible-shared glocal resource, which can be effectively managed by multilingual users to overcome cultural and ethnic stereotypes to bring about mutual respect and understanding.